Seals
The impression of one's signet placed upon an article as evidence of a claim to possession; fig.a mark of ownership.
a. A piece of wax or some other plastic or adhesive substance (originally, and still frequently, one bearing the impression of a signet: cf. sense 1), fixed on a folded letter or document, or on a closed door or receptacle of any kind, in such a way that an opening cannot be effected without breaking it.
- Overview
- Shape, Materials and Designs
- Seals in Literature
- Seals in Trials
- Seals in Correspondance
Overview:
Seals have been used by societies across the world since the beginning of recorded history- indeed they often provide the first historical records- and are still used today. Throughout the Middle Ages seals were the prime means of validating documents in Britain, and they continued to play a significant role in law and administration in the modern age. Although there was a decline in seal-ownership at the end of the middle ages, landowners, businessmen and tradesmen, lawyers and clerics, as well as anyone who had cause to attest formal documents on a regular basis still required matrices for use of seals of validation.
Seals were produced for personal use, to signify the taste and individuality of their owner. Their chief use in the 18th century was for closure. It has in fact has been highlighted that ‘this supremely literate age is distinguished by the widespread use of seals as an essential part of proliferate private correspondence’ (Seidmann,153). Seals were the primary form of securing letters and documents before the invention of the gummed envelope. They were also used as a form of ‘calling card’. Additionally to their practical use, seals were also used as tokens of affection or friendship. They were also fashionable items used to portray the social status of their owner by using the decorative design to elicit their wealth and good taste. The eighteenth century was a period where enthusiasm for 'the antique' proliferated and as such eighteenth century sealing practice became an important chapter in the history of taste. As such there was a revival of seals engraved in a classical style which consequently reintroduced the practice of seal cutting (from metals, to precious stones) as an art, as opposed to a repetitive craft. This in tern contributed to the spread of neoclassical taste in the eighteenth century.
Shapes, Materials and Designs:
The importance of seals comes in their ability to be personalised and individual to their owner. Although in the past seals has been mass produced, it became the fashion in the eighteenth century to have your own design in accordance to your preferences and needs. The eighteenth century was a time in which figures of classical figures become proliferate. Thus these became popular images to be engraved into seals. These included heads and figures of classical heroes, gods, statesmen, as well as the images of medieval and recent figures such as Dante, Newton, and Michelangelo (New, 113). Seal engravers would advertise these designs in magazines and newspapers. Seals could also have meanings connected to religious belief. One instance is the personal seal of John Wesley (1703-1791), who was the founder of the methodist movement. His seal was inscribed with the motto 'Believe Love Obey'. Names, initials and mottos grew increasingly popular from the eighteenth century onwards and have influenced the modern day concept of name stamps.
Materials:
True Sealing wax (beeswax) was used throughout the medieval period and into the early-modern period, but was slowly replaced by shellac as the main material for impressions. Shellac and its synthetic alternatives were termed 'sealing wax' to avoid confusion with the 'true sealing wax' which held different properties. Shellac is the resinous secretion of an insect (Tachardia lacca) native to South-East Asia, and is far more brittle than 'true sealing wax' (Woods, 204). It also has a much lower melting point and was used in the form of small pellets of a stick of wax which was melted with a candle or a match. Shellac usually red in colour, although black shellac can be found.
Rings:
In the 18th century the all-metal signet ring (see page on rings) disappeared from production and stone set rings became the fashion moving from armourial devices to gems engraved with figures in an antique style.
The portrait below presents a group of members of the Society Dilettanti on Grand Tour of Italy admiring some gem-set rings by holding them up to the light. Members of societies such as these would go on grand tours in search of trinkets and new objects of taste to bring back and inspire new fashions in society. As put by Seidmann 'these rings were set with gems, treasured spoils their Italian journeys; as intaglio-engraved sealstones they were best seen in transmitted light' (Seidmann, 63). Amongst the members pictured, at least two were avid collectors of gems, another reason why gem-engraved seals were popular items to collect.
Figure 1: Portrait Group of Members of the Society Dilettanti, Sir Joshua Reynolds 1777-79
The painting below presents Charles Frederick who was elected a fellow of the Society of Antiquaries in 1731 and of the Royal Society in 1733. In January 1736 he was chosen director of the Society of Antiquaries and served until 1738, when he resigned the office in order to travel abroad. He is pictured here on his travels in Rome. His love of antiquaries is presented in the painting which shows him wearing a gem-set carnelian ring. He is writing a letter which he will later seal using this ring.
Figure 2: Portrait of Charles Frederick, third son of Sir Thomas Frederick and Mary Moncrieff. Andrea Casali, 1738
Pendant Seals:
Unlike the all-metal signet ring, the all-metal pendant seal continued its popularity in the eighteenth century. It slowly began to replace the signet ring for sealing purposes and became a fashionable jewellery statement. They were primarily used for business correspondence and were made of silver or steel. They either had plain, flat handles, or lavishly embellished scroll handles. They often came in swivel form, as below, so the matrix could be seen when worn and simple turned and pushed to impress into wax. Figure 3 below is a two-sided oval steel matrix which has a bearded bust on one side and a camel on the other side. The 'CAMELL' underneath the image represents the legend of the camel, a story about the camels that trekked with the three wise men across deserts to visit the baby Jesus.
Figure 3: Oval, two-sided swivel steel pendant seal
Engraved stones were used more frequently and either oval or rectangular in shape. Armorial seals were engraved with crests, or initials. Armorial pendant seals were usually made from carnelian, sard and rock crystal and sometimes on citrine or amethyst. Figure 4 below shows a pendant seal with a flat, openwork handle of scrolls and scallops in a rococo design. The stone is a milky quartz which has a shield of arms engraved into it, and it is held in a gold mount. Similar pendant seals all included shell or other small embellishments set into them.
Figure 4: Milky Quartz Pendant Seal Engraved with a shield of arms
Hand or Desk Seals:
Hand or Desk seals became rare in the eighteenth-century, taken over by the more popular pendant seal. The desk seals that were produced were much stronger than their earlier predecessors, often made with stone or metal matrices and mounted in silver with solid handles usually 6cm or more in height.The matrix was usually engrave with a shield of arms, or gems engraved in the classical taste.
Great Seals:
The great seal was the most important official seal in Britain as it was the official seal of the monarch. It was of such importance that when the house of John Scott, Earl of Eldon's (1751-1838) house caught fire, the Great Seal Matrix was rescued in preference to any of his belongings. The Great Seal was of such importance that it was considered treason to forge it and resulted in the Death Penalty if anyone was convicted of such a crime. The Great Seal had to be broken in front of witnesses when decommissioned. The eighteenth-century brought about a new ceremony in which the monarch had to touch the new matrix in front of the Privy Council in order to validate it.
The colour of wax used denoted the different uses of the seal. Uncoloured wax (or 'white' wax) was generally used for documents of temporary value, whereas red wax was used for smaller royal seals. In addition Pierre Chaplais, a scholar of administrative history and palaeography, has noted the importance of the form of attachment in combination with the wax colour (Chaplias, 19). Documents with the Great Seal in green wax attached by cords are the most important, often used for the ratification of a peace treaty. Uncoloured wax with a tag noted a less significant document, such as the ratification of a truce,a dn a uncoloured wax with a tongue are often more ephemeral documents such as instructions to ambassadors.
Figure 5: Reverse of the Great Seal of George II
Figure 6: Great Seal of England of George II on a Royal Letters Patent
Above is shows the wax imprint of the seal of George II which was on a vellum document written in 1735. The impression depicts the king in Roman armour, reflecting the contemporary interest in the Classical period. The diameter of the seal is roughly 6 inches and is suspended by the original ties. The letter on which it is attached appointed George Purvis, Captain of the Royal Navy, to be a Commissioner of the Admiralty, to fulfill the duties of 'the Comptroller of Our Navy relating to the Accounts of the Treasurer' with authority 'to sign Contracts, Bills, and Orders', with details of his duties and salary. In reference to the account above, the ties attached highlight the importance of the order, whilst the red wax used implies that shellac was used, rather than beeswax.
Seals of the Exchequer and Law Courts:
Seals of the Exchequer were used to seal documents such as records of debts, fines, or accounts related to the Royal Treasury. Seals that belonged to the Exchequer, the King's Bench and Courts of Common Pleas originated as deputed Great Seals. Before the 13th century the English Exchequer also commonly used a smaller duplicate of the Great Seal, but after this the Exchequer was using its own distinct seal to issue documents. The same was the case with the Scottish Exchequer, and it was only with the Scottish 1708 Exchequer Court Act that a separate seal was obtained. From the passing of this act till 1856, when the Court of Exchequer merged both the Court of Sessions, eight different Scottish Exchequer Seals were produced.
The colour of the wax was important, as all documents issued with the seal of the English Exchequer were impressed with green wax, so much so that green became the colour associated with the government. The Scottish Exchequer used red wax for writs and green wax for commissions of enquiry and deeds.
Seals in Trials:
Seals were often important pieces of evidence during trials as a means to linking letters that contained important information to their owners. In the case of the trial of the treasonous Francis De La Motte (1781), Mr Henry Lutterloh, a former accomplice, was asked to verify the validity of a seal belonging to De La Motte, which was found on a letter in a bundle that had been buried in Lutterloh’s garden. This letter contained secret naval intelligence, which De La Motte sent to France (allies of the US) during the War of American Independence.
“What are those two seals? - They are Mr. De la Motte's own seals: he sealed them in my presence; his seal was known in France.”[4]
The seal was therefore a form of identity, which can be used to prove personhood. They were trusted items that had the power to sway a court due to their official nature. The evidence Lutterloh provided was ironically what sealed La Motte’s fate.
Seals were also commonly stolen due to their high worth in precious metals and stones. One such case was the trial of Gabriel De Chaund and his wife Elizabeth, who were accused of breaking and entering into the home of Thomas De Grey, Esq. on the 23d of November 1772. Amongst the objects stolen were 'two cornelian stone seals set in enamelled gold, value 12 l'. Such sources also give an indication of the worth of seals in the eighteenth century. The value here of 12 pounds would equate to having the same spending worth of 2005s £764.28.
Other examples of stolen seals include 'two stone seals set in gold, value 8 l' (spending worth of £509.52 in 2005 money) which were stolen by Luke Cannon and John Siday on 12th January 1771 with a hoard of silverware.
In both of the two cases of theft those on trial were charged as guilty and the sentence for their crime was death. This presents the importance of the seal as a valuable trinket amongst other possessions such that it necessitated the punishment of death in multiple trials.
Seals in use in 18th Century Literature:
'Your organs are not so dull that I should inform you,--'tis an inch, Sir, of red seal-wax. When this is melted and dropped upon the letter, if Dolly fumbles too long for her thimble, till the wax is over harden'd, it will not receive the mark of her thimble from the usual impulse which was wont to imprint it.' (Tristram Shandy, 1759)
The seal-wax is used as an metaphor to help one understand the complexity of Locke's text 'An Essay of Human Understanding'. Seal-wax, which is easily impressionable and quickly changes state from a waxy liquid to a hardened solid, can help as to clarify how philosophy cannot easily imprint upon the mind if not quickly grasped.
"If this be the Case, it dictates the Necessity of early Education of Children, in whom, not the Soul only but the organick Powers are, as a Lump of soft Wax, which is always ready to receive any Impression; but if harden'd, grow callous, and stubborn, and like what we call Sealing-Wax, obstinately refuse the Impression of the Seal, unless melted and reduced by the Force of Fire; that is to say, Unless moulded and temper'd to Instruction, Length of Time and abundance of Difficulty." (Daniel Defoe, Mere Nature Delineated, 1726)
The seal is again used a metaphor of 'impression' moving from the physical impression of a seal into wax to the idea of the mouldable, impressionability of children. Defoe emphasises the importance, in fact the 'Necessity' of teaching children from an early age to avoid future difficulties of teaching them later in life when it become decidedly more difficult.
While with the motion of the pen,
Method pops in and out agen,
So, as I said, I thought it better,
To set me down and think a letter,
And without any more ado,
Seal up my mind, and send it you.
The seal was also used metaphorically in the sense of 'sealing up', to enclose or prevent entry so that nothing could enter or leave. In the above letter The Cobbler uses a pun, playing on the idea of sealing up the letter he writes and metaphorically closing up his thoughts in his mind within the letter when he seals it.
‘On the Backside are several Knots of black and yellow Silk; to which hangs a Seal of Gold.’ Ephraim Chambers · Cyclopædia; or, an universal dictionary of arts and sciences · 1st edition, 1728 (2 vols.).
This description alludes to the previously mentioned importance of cords which hang off seals, which marks the seal out as particularly important. This is further highlighted by the 'seal of gold'. Gold seals were very rare and only used by those who were very rich and wanted to show off their riches and fashionability in society.
‘Mr. Cran..informed her she might put her seal upon whatever she meant hereafter to claim.’ Frances Burney, Cecilia; or, Memoirs of an heiress, 1782
The seal is used here as a device to claim what is rightfully yours. In this way the seal is a way to personally posses by imprinting your name upon objects.
‘This seal he always wore, and constantly sealed his letters with it.’ Plutarch · Plutarch's lives: translated from the original Greek, with notes critical and historical, and a New life of Plutarch (transl. John Langhorne) · 1770.
Here we see the historical reference to seals which were even used by the fame Plutarch as both a practical and fashionable item that was of great importance to him, as to was on his person at all times.
Seals in Correspondence:
The 18th century was a period in which a plethora of correspondence took place. As a result, today we have been left with a range of letters as well as the objects that were used to seal them. Pendant seals were originally used for the purpose of sealing, but these were quickly overtaken by 'fob-seals' a term inspired by the eighteenth-century fashion for men to keep their watches in the fob-pocket of their breeches. Fob-seals became fashionable necessities often accompanied by the watch. The seal matrix was typically an engraved gem, a fashion which supposed the previous fashion for metal, initialled matrices.
Many seals used for closing letters have understandably been discarded after opening the letter and thus there are few remaining. A few remains of seals can be found on documents or torn closures. However, it was the fashion to collect seals like a modern day stamp collector, or in helping to record correspondence.
Figure 7: L'Ecriture, Jean Etienne Liotard, 1752
This pastel on paper drawing by Liotard denotes a narrative whereby the painter's nephew completing a letter what will be sealed with red wax on the table using the heat of the candle (see page on candles) carried by the boy who is the letter writer's nephew. This presents the everyday usage of seals in correspondence as well as holding the importance of the seal in representing the family name. The seal will ultimately be passed down to the writer's nephew for his own personal use. The seal thus travels through the family aiding another generation of letter writers to imprint their identity upon the eighteenth century literary era.
Some examples of Personal Seals used in Correspondence:
Figure 8: Personal Seal of Sir Matthew Lamb
| Name : |
Sir Matthew Lamb (Lambe), baronet, executor of Thomas, late earl of Leicester |
| Places : |
Concerning Cambridgeshire / Norfolk / Suffolk |
| Seal Design: |
Design: ?gem (bald and bearded man's head facing right), Size: 18 mm, Shape: round, Colour: red, Legend: none, Personal |
| Material: |
Shellac |
| Attachment: |
Applied |
| Seal Note: |
No name on seal. Material: shellac. The seal is applied on tape between two slits in the document. Impression: fine. Condition: complete.
|
| Date: |
1764 August 28 |
|
Figure 9: Personal Seal of Susanna Werden
| Description: |
| Name : |
Susanna Werden, widow, executrix of Sir John Werden of Chichester, Sussex, knight |
| Places : |
Property in Salford, Lancashire; Party from Chichester, Sussex |
| Document Note: |
Sir John Werden is further described as deceased. |
| Seal Design: |
Design: ?woman's head and draped shoulder facing left, Size: c 18 x c 15 mm, Shape: oval, Colour: red, Legend: none, Personal |
| Material: |
Shellac |
| Attachment: |
Applied |
| Seal Note: |
No name on seal. Material: shellac. The seal is applied on tape between two slits in the document. Impression: fair. Condition: slight damage. |
| Note: |
2ms and 1 sheet of paper |
| Date: |
1770 May 29 |
|
|---|
Annotated Bibliography:
seal, n.2." OED Online. Oxford University Press, December 2015. Web. 18 December 2015.
Definition of 'seal' in Oxford English Dictionary allowed me to place the start of my page in context.
Seidmann, G. 'Personal seals in Eighteenth- and Early Nineteenth-Century England and their Antecedents' in Collon ed., 7000 Years of Seals.
This book was crucial in providing information about the history of seals including their changing designs and uses over the eighteenth century. It also provided me with some of the images of eighteenth century seals which were hard to come by.
Seidmann, G. “The Grand Tourist's Favourite Souvenirs: Cameos and Intaglios”. RSA Journal 144.5475 (1996): 63–66.
A useful journal article for understanding the fashion of collecting seals and the concept of 'grand tours' for coming across new souvenirs to bring back and admire amongst fashionable society.
New, Elizabeth A. Seals and Sealing Practices. Ed. Mairi Rena Macdonald. London: British Records Association, Feb. 2010.
A text that provided a contextual overview of the usage of seals throughout history. It provides a good introduction to the types of seals researchers will encounter in archives, with detailed discussion of the evolution of different classes of seals and sealing practices.
Woods, C. The Nature and Treatment of Wax and Shellac Seals'. Journal of the Society of Archivists 12, 1994.
Useful for understanding the importance of the materials used in making seals and the meaning behind the usage of different sealing materials and coloured wax.
Chaplain, Peter. English Royal Documents (Oxford, 1971)
This text was particularly useful for the section on Great Seals and of the Exchequer and Law Courts. It provides an understanding of how and why seals are affixed to royal documents and Chaplain has done extensive research into the different ways in which seals are affixed to documents and the reasoning behind this.
The TRIAL of FRANCIS HENRY DE LA MOTTE , for High Treason:
Old Bailey Proceedings Online (www.oldbaileyonline.org, version 7.2, 17 March 2016), July 1781, trial of Francis Henry De la Motte (t17810711-1).
The trial of La Motte proved of great historical interest as well as being useful in conveying the importance of seals as modes of evidence in trials. It was fascinating to see how important seals were, effecting the outcome of the case by proving that the seal printed on the treasonous documents belonged to La Motte.
Old Bailey Proceedings Online (www.oldbaileyonline.org, version 7.2, 17 March 2016), February 1773, trial of GABRIEL DE CHAUND alias DECHAND , and ELIZABETH his wife GABRIEL DE CHAUND alias DECHAND (t17730217-12).
A useful trial for understanding the worth of seals in the eighteenth century as well as the severity of punishment incurred for stealing them as part of a host of other valuables.
Old Bailey Proceedings Online (www.oldbaileyonline.org, version 7.2, 17 March 2016), February 1771, trial of LUke Cannon John Siday Lazarus Jacobs Jacob Jacobs Michael Glannon (t17710220-15).
Also a useful trial for the same reasons as above. Further emphasised the importance of seals in that these two trials were two of several cases where seals were stolen and the outcome was death.
Web Pages Used for Research:
http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/help-with-your-research/research-guides/seals/
A great starting point, and the first website I came across on how to research seals and where to search for examples of seals. Their huge database led me to finding the two personal seals presented in the last section.
http://www.sigillvm.net
A website dedicated to the research of seals for academic purposes. I contacted them initially and got brilliant advice from an academic from NYU on where to look and which books to consider reading.
Images:
Figure 1: Portrait Group of Members of the Society Dilettanti, Sir Joshua Reynolds 1777-79 in SEIDMANN, GERTRUD. “The Grand Tourist's Favourite Souvenirs: Cameos and Intaglios”. RSA Journal 144.5475 (1996): 63–66. Web.
Figure 2: Portrait of Charles Frederick, third son of Sir Thomas Frederick and Mary Moncrieff. Andrea Casali, 1738. Ashmolean Museum
Figure 3: Oval, two-sided swivel steel pendant seal. Croft Lyons Collection, London. In Seidmann, G. 'Personal seals in Eighteenth- and Early Nineteenth-Century England and their Antecedents' in Collon ed., 7000 Years of Seals.
Figure 4: Milky Quartz Pendant Seal Engraved with a shield of arms. Croft Lyons Collection, London. In Seidmann, G. 'Personal seals in Eighteenth- and Early Nineteenth-Century England and their Antecedents' in Collon ed., 7000 Years of Seals.
Figure 5: Reverse of the Great Seal of George II in Seidmann, G. 'Personal seals in Eighteenth- and Early Nineteenth-Century England and their Antecedents' in Collon ed., 7000 Years of Seals.
Figure 6: Great Seal of England of George II on a Royal Letters Patent (http://library.princeton.edu/libraries/firestone/rbsc/aids/willsie-seals/sealsroyal.pdf)
Figure 7: L'Ecriture, Jean Etienne Liotard, 1752, on exhibition at the Royal Academy, London
I saw this painting at an exhibition at the Royal Academy in London in January. It visually documented the use of seals in everyday life in the 18th century, something which I had previously struggled to come across in my online research.
Figure 8: Personal Seal of Sir Matthew Lamb. Held by The National Archives, Kew. http://discovery.nationalarchives.gov.uk/details/r/D8183955#imageViewerLink.
Figure 9: Personal Seal of Susanna Werden. Held by The National Archives, Kew. http://discovery.nationalarchives.gov.uk/details/r/C5192600
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