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Sugar

Page history last edited by Ben Shears 8 years ago

                   

     Sugar: From Cane to Cup, and A Little Extra to Taste...


 

 

Introduction

 

What is sugar, exactly?

 

"A sweet crystalline substance, white when pure, obtained from a great variety of plant juices, but chiefly from those of the sugar-cane and sugar-beet, and forming an important article of human food." OED

 

"The taste of sugar is generally pleasing, but it cannot long be eaten by itself. Thus meekness and courtesy will always recommend the first address, but soon pall and nauseate, unless they are associated with more spritely qualities. The chief use of sugar is to temper the taste of other substances, and softness of behaviour in the same manner mitigates the roughness of contradiction, and allays the bitterness of unwelcome truth." (Johnson, Punch, p. 193)

                                                                                

 

 

 

 

                                                                                         Figure 1: Drawing of a sugar cane 1779.                                                                             Figure 2: Photograph of a late 18th century sugar pot.
                                                                                                              
                                                    
 

Johnson, however satirical he may conjecture in his work, hits the nail straight on the head with this explanation. His implication that sugar is an addition is not only physically true; it also true metaphorically. The difference between being able to have and add sugar, and not being able to, would denote social status most clearly. The “unwelcome truth” to which Johnson refers would be played out across the world stage from the late 17th century to the end of the long 18th one as the appalling practice of the slave trade. The literature of the period, in fact, often depicts a world where only few words are needed to convey the troublesome history of this now everyday product.

 

Sugar, as we know it today, is readily available to most, relatively inexpensive, and – especially in Western countries - socially indiscriminate. This was, however, not the case in the 18th century; rather, sugar was very expensive, not easily accessible, and certainly not available to all echelons of society. In today's modern world, sugar is a product – merely something we use and do not really think about; however, this does not reflect the way in which it became a notion in the 18th century. That is to say, that it indicated social class as much as it was a novelty in the period. Insofar as the modern world sees sugar, there is one similarity: that of its use in cooking; from wine to orange jelly, the use of sugar in the 18th century was becoming increasingly diverse. Indeed, when it comes to the types of sugar which appear across the century, notable examples include Muscovado and Maple sugar.

 

The history of sugar is particularly interesting for its inherent links to slavery and mercantilism. The sugar plantations in the West Indies, controlled by Britain until the latter part of the century, sowed the seeds for the mass production and consumption of sugar. The breadth and complexity of the history of sugar is not the subject of this page; but it will be alluded to, as it would be almost impossible to analyse sugar in the 18th century without considering the contentious practices with which it is associated. 

 

Date range of the specific term 'sugar': 

 

                               

                                  Figure 3: Google N-gram, showing frequency of the term 'sugar' in 18th century English texts.                          

 

 

 

                                   Figure 4: 'Sugar' search from Historical Texts, showing any texts containing the word 'sugar' between 1700 and 1800

 

The first graph here represents the prevalence of historical texts uploaded in the 18th century. It is characterised, as is shown, by a steady rise from the early 1700s to the turn of the calendar century. This rise is directly linked to the slave trade, its effect on the price of sugar, and the subsequent demands of English grocers and sugar refiners to lower the price. Hence, more and more texts come to fruition which explore the nature of the price rises, as well as many writers who have something to say about the importation of products like sugar from slave labourers. It is evident that, after 1800, very few texts containing the term sugar are found. However, in relation to the percentage on the Google Ngram Viewer, there is hardly any significant drop at all. We might be able to explain this by the simple fact that less texts have been uploaded relating to the turn of the 19th century. Indeed, in almost all categories (from wine and cinnamon to horses), less texts are to be found after 1800. 

 


                         'One lump or two?': Sugar as Value

 

Manufacture

 

An anonymous writer informs us of the methods of obtaining and manufacturing sugar; this author also opens up the scope of sugar in the 18th century, detailing some of the different types of sugar available. First, though, the author begins with a description of the natural appearance of this plant. The colour of the sugarcane changes throughout the process of its maturity. Apart from being a 'smooth jointed reed', it starts life in green and then turns yellow and 'popinjay' as the author tells us - which is a kind of parrot, so the ambiguity of the actual color is lost on us in the modern day. Nevertheless, if we see a sugar cane, we can be sure as to whether it is going to be suited to sugar extraction or not: 'If any leaves are seen remaining at the lower knots, the cane is looked on as of a bad kind.' The fact that the Indian reed is so far superior to the European imitation is demonstrated by the formed abounding 'with a pleasant, rich sweet juice, capable of being manufactured into sugars, wines, and vinous spirits.' Indeed, this is only possible due to the 'spongy pith', of which the smooth part of the stalk is soft, and of 'whitish colour; that of the joints is harder, more compact, and darker coloured: the first is by much the most juicy, but the juice of the latter is sweetest.' Insofar as the ripeness of the cane is concerned, juice from unripe canes is 'crude, watry, and abounds with gross, unctuous matter' and is very difficult to reduce to sugar. When fully ripe, however, the quality of the sugar is immeasurably higher. Once the correct sugarcane has been discriminately chosen, the sugar then apparently goes through 4 prescribed steps to arrive as sugar. The first of which is the pressing of the canes (see image below); the second is the boiling process; the third is the furnace; the last is the boiler again. (The Art of Making Sugar. 1752.)

 

 

                                                                                            Figure 5:  A 1749 representation of the process of making sugar, from Of The Sugar Cane, And Making Sugar.

 

However, we must note that the methods for preparing different types of sugar vary. For example, in the case of Muscovado or Brown Sugar, it being the lowest form of sugar available in the century - literally an English corruption of the Spanish word azúcar mascabado meaning sugar of the lowest quality or value - the process of preparing it is substantially different. The large quantity of 'gross, unctuous matter' in the sugarcane is the principle component of this type of sugar. The separation of this other matter from the gross stuff is achieved by essentially adding quicklime to the saccharine matter, which allows it to solidify into solid sugar and allows the impurities to arise in scum by the heat applied for evaporating the watery mixture.  

 

The impurities from the Muscovado sugar are actually the molasses, the very least valuable form of sugar as it was known in the 18th century, and still is today to some extent. They were used for the purposes of fermentations before 1698, after which some German artists found means of employing it to greater advantage by making it into sugar, though a form of which was 'unfit for the purposes of the refiner.' Hence, it was substantially cheaper than sugar due to the relatively simple process making it: it is simply the by-product of refining sugar cane or beets. However, as we will explore later, the uses of these molasses would ironically become more valuable than sugar itself, as the ability to make Rum and other spirits appeared as a by-product.

 

In order to make sugar for common use, such as cooking and making wine, the sugars must be refined. We are told of the processes require to do this; what is more relevant to today, perhaps, is the reason why sugar may be 'rendered as white as snow.' 

 

Figure 6: Chapter from The Art of Making Sugar. 1752.

 

The fact that this author is able to give such detailed and specific observations would imply that they were familiar with, or had at least observed in person, these methods, and so it shows us that it was possible to travel to the West Indies during this time (where the majority of sugarcane was grown insofar as Britain was concerned).

 

What is even more interesting is the emergence of discourses which describe obtaining sugar from other sources, such as trees, for Maple sugar. Benjamin Rush's 1792 account of how to obtain sugar from the Maple tree is just as detailed as the previous author. Of course, this is an American account - the US being the principle grower of this tree - and so it is not relevant to Britain, but it does give us a sense of the breadth of sugar types and processes used during the 18th century.

 

Price

 

To be able to understand the various implications for the possession and use of sugar during this century, the price of this product must be considered, particularly because the 18th century was arguably the period during which the most profound change is to be found with regards to the cost of sugar. Sugar has often been seen to have been the reserve of the upper classes. Whilst this is true at the beginning of century (more specifically between the end of the 17th century and the early 1700s), more nuance is required if we are to look at the greater timespan of 100 years. In fact, perhaps the most problematic thing for British planters in the West Indies was that the profitability of the sugar industry was very low in the 1720s-30s. For example, in London, the price of colonial Muscovado sugar was the modern day equivalent of £93.23 per hundred-weight; in 1733, it dropped to its next-to-lowest price of today's £71.68. The reasons for this included the West India interest's first parliamentary victory in 1731, with an act that allowed the free export of unenumerated commodities directly from British sugar colonies to Ireland. As the previous Google Ngram demonstrates, sugar enjoys a steady rise of usage from around 1720, where it steadily increases, until it starts to steeply rise after 1740. The disproportional correlation between the number of texts with sugar as a term in the late 1730s and 40s can be explained by the sheer number of protestations which are to be found, relating to the high price of sugar after 1739 - when, ironically, an act was granted which gave liberty to ship plantation sugar directly to continental European markets, a tool used to raise the price of sugar in this specific period. The prevalence of such strongly-worded and fiercely critical texts suggests that sugar was not only expensive and the price was too high for many, but that it was valued so highly, too.

  

                                                             

                                                Figure 7: Title Page of Proposals Offered For The Sugar Planters                         Figure 8: Frontispiece of Some Considerations Concerning The Sugar Colonies, With

                                                 Redress &c.. 1733.                                                                                                                 Political Observations, In Respect To Trade. 1732.                                                                                                                                                                  

                       

Class and Social Status

 

One thing must be made clear when looking at sugar from the perspective of societal status at the beginning of the 18th century, and that is that the labouring classes did not have sugar; they instead had molasses. It was the middle and upper classes that actually had sugar. (ref. Olsen, Daily life in 18th c) So, not only does sugar vary in type - as we have seen in the previous section - but that type is used as a denotation of position in society. As crass as it might seem to us today, sugar, or the lack thereof, was very indicative of one's value in society. This can be seen in much of the literature of the period. Pamela, for example, Richardson's morally repugnant novel, is illustrative proof of sugar as a valued reserve of the upper class. Interestingly, its relationship with Tea in the 18th century was quite different to today. Being able to put sugar in your tea was itself a statement of your wealth. In the novel, for example, Pamela recalls an instance where sugar undeniably represents the symbol of wealth and class:

  

"Well, said my Lady, then help me, good Sister, there's for you! to a little Sugar. Will that please you, Sir?" 

 

Indeed, Thomas Short's wonderfully articulate Discourses on Tea, only solidifies this idea, as:

 

 "As Tea without Sugar makes for a very ordinary Tipple to most People"...

 

One can almost taste the ironic bitterness in his voice. The very fact of not having sugar makes you just an ordinary person; sugar adds a little bit of finess. 

 

Hogarth's work Lowlife is similar in its observations of sugar in the fabric of society:

 

 'Servant Maids, by the Help of false Keys, opening their Mistresses Cupboards, Beaufets, Tea-Chests, &c.  and taking great Excise of their Teas, Sugars, and Wines, for the Use of the Afternoon, when their Acquaintances come to see them.' (p. 17)

 

     'Beggars who have almost finished their Day's Work, are converting their Halfpence and Farthings into Sterling Coin. The Servant Maids of People of Quality, treating of neighbouring Servants and gossiping Acquaintance with Tea, Sugar and Sweetmeats, which they procured by false Keys in the Morning.' (p. 42)

 

Sugar is seen as the unobtainable luxury from the point of view of the lower echelons of society in the 18th century. The rich had it a plenty, but the poor suffers on, in silence, stealing what they could and covering up their tracks. 

 

However, as we have seen, the wild fluctuations and dips in the price of sugar thus make it more readily available, but only for those who could afford. Whilst it is true that sugar had started to become an ingredient in many recipes, it was still considered a luxury item. Even as late in the century as 1792, there were still various pamphlets published pertaining to the high price of sugar. One particular example of this year really illuminates the complexity of this issue in the 18th century. It is difficult to chart the price of sugar year-by-year, but equally necessary to give some specific examples of the price fluctuations.

 

Again written by an anonymous author, we are told to look at the price of sugar in 1792. Being the end of the century, as previously discussed, this would mean that the price of sugar was levelling out somewhat. However, one event in 1791 evidently increased the price of sugar dramatically and quickly. This is the 'alarming and ruinous rebellion now raging in the important colony of St Domingo' (A Plain Man's Thoughts. p. 4). This is doubtlessly referring to the Haitian Revolution of 1791, before which, we are informed, 'Sugar was actually subsiding in price towards its natural level.' (p.4) In brief, the Haitian Revolution was a successful anti-colonial and anti-slavery campaign which lasted between 1791 and 1804, and liberated the former French colony of Saint Domingue (to which the anonymous author is referring) from slavery.

 

What is more fascinating, however, is the articulation of this author regarding the popularity or necessity of sugar:

Figure 9: Extract from A Plain Man's Thoughts On The Present Price of Sugar, &c. 1792. (p.2)

 

To expand upon this thought, the author has a whole short paragraph explaining why sugar is the subject of their text. We may thus infer that sugar was, whilst very expensive, a desirable item in the 18th century.

 

Figure 10: Extract from A Plain Man's Thoughts On The Present Price of Sugar, &c. 1792. (p.12.)


Sugar and Desire

 Cooking

 

 Due to the multiplicity of recipes to be found with sugar in them during this period, it might be fruitful to centre on some specific examples of usage and look into them more intensely. In general, the mass of emergence of cookery books in the 18th century speaks to the paralleled rise of cooking in the home. Indeed, in a diary of an 18th century shopkeeper, we see that sugar was widely bought, much like tea. (Diary. p.10) In fact, the recipe books by such notables as Hannah Glasse and Eliza Smith represent the sheer diversity of cooking being explored at this time.

 

Hannah Glasse published a cornucopia of cook books during the 18th century, ranging from the early-mid 1700s to the very end of the century. Surely, the prevalence of cook books during this period reflects an increased desire to use food and experiment with cooking.

 

The image below shows an example of a recipe which may appear somewhat strange to us now. Essentially, these seem to be edible sweets. The 'lozenges' which are made in this process are the product of boiled loaf sugar. Interestingly, loaf sugar was just a way of mass buying sugar; nowadays, of course, we have granules, but this was generally not the case in the 18th century when it came to the purchasing of sugar. This recipe requires one pound of loaf sugar, which equates to 16oz in metrical measurements. 

                                                                                       Figure 11: Extract showing how to make sugar of roses, from The compleat confectioner. 1762. (p.33)

 

So, what is this strange wormwood cake? The only place in which the 'wormwood cake' appears in dictionary resources is in 1655, when the OED describes it as 

"good for a cold Stomach, and to help Digestion." Wormwood itself, however, is a plant whose medicinal qualities were well-documented in the 18th century. See Wine as a comparative example of its usage.  

 

Additionally, as another quirky example of representative sugar usage in 18th century cookery, we have the so-called sugar-plates. Primarily used as a decorative piece and a tray upon which to serve sweetmeats, this recipe also features rose as a key ingredient. The implication from these sources - and the fact that they are from cook books - is that the rose was used as a decorative item, perhaps to add a touch of class to a dessert. Sugar, as its purpose, is to be boiled, crystallised and used to provide the structure of the decoration. 

 

                                                                                      Figure 12: Extract showing how to make sugar plates, from The compleat housewife: or, accomplish'd gentlewoman's companion. 1736. (p.168)

 

A  more sugar-directed recipe does interestingly have some resonance to us. The 'sugar cakes' are essentially what we would now call shortbread biscuits. The recipe is indeed very similar to one we might use today. The simplicity of this recipe is, however, deceiving, since cooking a good shortbread biscuit requires a lot of skill, as well as the correct ingredients.

 

 

Figure 13: Extract showing how to make sugar cakes, from The English art of cookery, according to the present practice; being a complete guide to all housekeepers, on a plan entirely new. 1790?. (p.429)

 

Zooming out from the perspective of conventional cooking in the 1700s, we can find some quite surprising example of how and when sugar was used. For example, at the very end of the 17th century, we see guide-style handbooks on midwifery and nursing. We may not think has a big part to play in these events, but it is not true. The use of sugar to calm, sweeten and aid a newborn baby is made quite clear in Robert Barrett's A companion for midwives, child-bearing women, and nurses directing them how to perform their respective offices : together with an essay, endeavouring to shew the influence of moral abuses upon the health of children: 

 

 

                                                                         Figure 14: Extract from A companion for midwives, child-bearing women, and nurses directing them how to perform their respective offices.1699. (p. 14)

 

Sugar is not used on its own to induce a baby's sweet temperament, but in a concoction of various other cooking ingredients, such as butter, beer, oil, and wine. Indeed Barret goes on to talk of a white-wine posset  (p.115) being given not to the baby, but to the nurse herself. Possets were usually moistened with flour and sugar, and sometimes flavoured. Pap, on the other hand, was essentially just liquid gruel, as is outlined in this extract.  The use of sugar is not as prolific as wine in the texts to be found on this subject, but sugar certainly has a role to play - perhaps even to just sweeten up the baby, and make the mouth moistened so that food would be ingested more economically.

 

Drinks: Wine

 

 The anonymous author who told us of the methods of obtaining sugar and processing it here gives us a summary of the unforeseen problem with the juice of the cane: 

 

"The native juice of the sugar cane, as it is eminently sweet, is likewise in a particular manner disposed to ferment; but without a deal of address runs, beyond the process of vinous fermentation, into an acetous state."

 

In this way, it is, therefore, necessary to process the sugar cane as is described previously. Although, after this has been done, it seems likely that the juice of the sugar cane is very well-suited to making wine, perhaps in a way which produces a superior drink to that of, say, the grape:

 

Figure 15: Extract from The Art of Making Sugar. 1752. (p. 31) 

 

Figure 16: Extract from Verses Made For Women Who Cry Apples &c.. ?. 

 

Swift's satirical poem, 'Verses made for Women who cry Apples, &c.', is yet another example of the appearance of sugar with wine in a literary context. Only this time, in the verse 'Oranges',Swift draws attention to Oranges and their strange purpose of making a 'sweet Bishop'; the implication is that, the oranges, along with the sugar and wine together might impair a Bishop to such an extent that he becomes 'sweet'. 

 

The importance of Wine in the 18th century must not be overlooked when analysing sugar in this period. If we look at texts such as Pamela and others, we can see the common mixture of wine and sugar:

 

"Mrs. Jewkes came officiously to ask my Master, just then, if she should bring a Glass of Rhenish and Sugar before Dinner for the Gentlemen and Ladies; and he said, That's well thought of; bring it, Mrs. Jewkes ." Rhenish is wine, and it is being used directly with sugar. Thus sugar and wine belong together in the picture of 18th century high society.


'What a Journey!': Sugar as Foreignness

 

As has already been made clear in this report, sugar has its link firmly in countries abroad, especially the West Indies. This allows sugar to be seen not only as a well-travelled object in the literal sense of the word, but also as intrinsically foreign. This is especially true when we look at the uses of sugar in drink in the 18th century. An historical approach to this project is to be avoided, but it is incontestably vital to conceive of sugar as historically steeped in some sense. The wealth of material pertaining to sugar in this period often appears with the term or Rum , a drink we recognise today. 

 

Drinks: Rum

 

     “A spirit drawn from sugar” (Page 195) of Johnson's Dictionary

     

In the 18th Century, sugar and rum were interlinked strongly. It is fact that in the late 17th, and 18th centuries, 'Britain's sugar colonies were the favoured plantations of the Empire.' (Williams, p. 67)The West Indian colonies 'had a practical monopoly of sugar cultivation'. (ibid) To sum the relationship succinctly, we say that 'the sugar colonies exported rum and sugar and rum to Europe and North America and imported slaves and food.' (ibid). What does this have to do with foreignness in a literary sense, then? It is , of course, given that geographically sugar and rum were well-travelled to Britain and England, as well as to Europe and North America. To examine this sense of foreignness further, we need to look at the literature of the period in this light. An illustrative example is 'Equiano' which not only serves to illuminate the practice of slavery in this century, but more relevantly gives us an insight into the internal world of goods for export. 

 

                                                                           Figure 17: Title page and frontispiece of the 1794 edition of The Interesting Narrative Of The Life of OIaudah Equiano

 

In this text, we see sugar – and rum – as inherently novel: as something different to Equiano’s ordinary experience. The terrible journey – both literally around the world, and metaphorically – means that he is alive to new experiences, and new things. In this way, he is kidnapped and taken to various places, eventually North America. His senses come alive, and he uses his emotions to take his attention away from the hardships he must endure. He describes how it is on a West African island that ‘I also saw and tasted for the first time sugar-cane.’ (p.41) It is interesting to note how his observance of ‘sugar-cane’ is different from that of ‘sugar-loaf’ (p.78), the latter which he uses as a comparative base. Tenerife, the island onto which the wind blows he and his companions is compared first-hand as being like a ‘sugar loaf’ (p.78) Sugar loaf, until the 19th century, was the final result of the processes required to make sugar in the form it was distributed in this period. Equiano would doubtlessly have been used to the appearance of the sugar loaf in Europe; it is when he is captured and becomes a slave that he learns of the methods required to make it. In this sense, then, sugar as foreign is a complicated notion. That is, the idea that the product of Equiano’s labour will be ironically that which he has already seen (the sugar loaf), but what he must enter into is a working contract with the sugar cane (previously unseen). The production and foreignness of sugar are thus clearly linked: at least to Equiano, the raw product of the sugar cane is new and yet undiscovered.

 

Equiano also sees sugar as a commodity, something which he must frequently bring his master, along with rum. The speaker recounts his necessity to find sugar and rum: “On the different islands where I used to be sent for rum or sugar”; sugar and rum had to be found and brought, it was symptomatic of his position in the hierarchy: so low that he had to bring to his master that which he could not consume himself.

 

Furthermore, sugar is seen as the result of a quest, a journey. ‘our captain, and three men besides myself, were going in a large canoe in quest of rum and sugar”. A voyage in its own right, obtaining rum and sugar was not only a necessity for the slaves, but it was also highly valued, which implies sugar as even more desirable. Indeed, as Sheridan correctly points out, the 1733 Molasses Act was passed which levied near-prohibitive duties on all foreign sugar, molasses, and rum imported into the American colonies, this being an attempt to reserve the practical monopoly of the American sugar market to British West Indies sugarcane growers. In 1739, too, an act was passed which granted liberty to ship plantation sugar to continental European markets, in a bid to inflate the price of sugar. 

 

 

We also have a similar experience of sugar as a novelty, only this time in a much earlier text of 1719 (as opposed to the later part of the 18th century when Equiano was published.) It comes in the form of a castaway, Robinson Crusoe. Similar to Equiano's account in the sense that it is written from the perspective of a castaway, but radically different for one thing: Robinson Crusoe is white, and Equiano is not. It is, therefore, necessary to compare these two 'characters'' depictions with caution; it opens up a perspective on sugar in the eighteenth century that is, rather strangely cyclical; Crusoe begins as a man essentially looking to purchase slaves, then he becomes enslaved, and then finally becomes a slave owner. Defoe's treatment of the slave trade is one which attempts to embody and represent the multiple facets of slavery as a notion. Nevertheless, the foreignness of sugar is not lost on its title character in much the same way as Equiano. Crusoe begins by setting out his aims for sugar plantation ownership, ostensibly detailing the processes both of the production of sugar, and also the production of a plantation:

 

"I had not been long here, but being recommended to the House of a good honest Man like himself, who had an Ingeino as they call it; that is, a 
Plantation and a Sugar-House, I lived with him some time, and acquainted my self by that Means with the Manner of their planting and making of Sugar; and seeing how well the Planters liv'd, and how they grew rich suddenly, I resolv'd, if I could get Licence to settle there, I would turn Planter among them, resolving in the mean time to find out some Way to get my Money which I had left in London remitted to me. To this Purpose getting a kind of a Letter of Naturalization, I purchased as much Land that was Uncur'd, as my Money would reach, and form'd a Plan for my Plantation and Settlement, and such a one as might be suitable to the Stock which I proposed to my self to receive from England ."

 

In spite of this, however, Crusoe's observation of sugar is detached; it is a new commodity whose potential for financial gain is only imposed on Crusoe when he sees the practices. Indeed, we might suggest that Crusoe's opinion of sugar is infected in some way by his greedy instincts. He sees sugar in its natural form as something to be made better, to be perfected:

 

"I saw several Sugar Canes, but wild, and for want of Cultivation, imperfect" 

 

Hence, Crusoe's wish to cultivate sugar is his wish to commodify the product, to make it the most profitable crop he can find. Despite the fact that he views sugar canes as imperfect in this particular instance, he still uses the language of foreignness: he has "contented myself with these Discoveries for this time".  

 


 

Floating Down River - Sugar and Corruption

 

In the 18th century, the prevalence of crimes relating to sugar was surprisingly high. By examining the processings of the Old Bailey in London during this period, we can begin to piece together the general characteristics of sugar. We have already seen in some detail how sugar was a valued item in society at this time, and how its uses only increase its symbolic representation as a desired and well-travelled object; what looking at sugar from the perspective of corruption allows us to see just to what extent sugar was valued: sometimes far beyond the grave, it would seem. Indeed, sugar, or sugar-loaf (as it was more commonplace to find in the home) was a product which was stolen incessantly, especially in London. McLynn's analysis of this period yields some interesting points, on the Thames especially. McLynn points out that perhaps 'the greatest incitement to crime in London was the Thames.' (p.9) This is especially revealing when it comes to the stealing of sugar; for, it was - as we have seen very clearly - an object which essentially toured the globe: from the West Indies, to North America and Europe, sugar was itself a journey. The fact that so many crimes pertaining to sugar occurred in London on the river Thames suggests that its nature as well-travelled made it an easy target for thieves; by coming into the ports, the ships could be ransacked fairly easily  and huge quantities of goods could be stolen in a short amount of time. This did not only include sugar, though, as rum, ginger and coffee also made a favoured target for miscreants. 

Figure 18: Illustrative example of River Thames theft. Original proceeding from Old Bailey Recordings. 1798. (p. 74)

 

Theft of goods including sugar was not, however, limited to the Thames, by any means. There is a plethora of examples showing that sugar was very sought after, and was, consequently, frequently stolen. What is of particular interest is the variety of both the perpetrators of these crimes - in terms of their social status - as well as the range of punishments meted out for these crimes. It must be said, that the records from the Old Bailey indicate that it was mainly around the Thames area that sugar was stolen - perhaps because it was more easily accessible to would-be thieves; since 'all classes of men were involved' (p.9, McLynn), would-be thieves would take opportunities they would not otherwise seize on to steal the valuable products docking in the Thames on a daily basis.

 

One example of such theft is that of Thomas Thorp, Evan Roberts, John Streek, Henry Hill, on 14th January 1715. They were charged with 'stealing 600lb Weight of Sugar' on 30th November 1714; Thorp and Streek both received the death sentence, along with 3 other people who happened to be sentenced to execution on that particular day. Roberts, however, got off lucky, and was acquitted, for no particular reason, other than that he was simply found not guilty of the crime. Despite the judgements of this trio, the death sentence was not pronounced on everyone who was convicted of stealing goods; sugar in these instances, of course. William Vineyard received a punishment whose effect may well have been more gruesome than death itself; he was sentenced to Whipping  'for feloniously stealing 2 Pounds of Sugar value 8d. out of the Warehouse of William Hyton on the 7th Instant.' (see whipping quote) in 1715. 15 other people joined him in that fateful punishment on the same day. The aforementioned instances all occurred before 1751, after which time it became a capital punishment to steal for than 40 shillings worth of goods from a ship on a navigable river or wharf (p.9, McLynn). So, the punishments for stealing goods from a ship (most notably sugar as discussed) increased drastically after 1751. We might assume that it is at this point that the government decided that too much was being stolen from ships just coming into port. The fact that the estimated value of goods stolen between 1749 and 1750 alone was £100,000 makes the penalty for stealing goods at least more justifiable, in the sense that sugar and other commodities coming into Britain (and London, especially) was a trade which needed to continue if trade links with its colonies in the West Indies were to be supported.

Those who were wise enough not to steal more than 40 shillings worth of sugar got off rather easily, even in 1772, for Walter Malloney received but 1 month's imprisonment for stealing 11lb of sugar worth 5 shillings. 

In more general terms, an interesting account of crimes in the 18th century is documented in John Poulter's Discoveries, charting the day-to-day records of crimes between 1749 and 1753. His accounts clearly show that the criminal underworld in 18th century London was organised and intelligently designed, so much so that it spanned not just London, but even as far as York, as this particular example shows: the theft of sugar permeated the fabric of English society in the 18th century; we must, however, treat Poulter's account seriously, as he was sentenced to the death during the time he was writing this. The work itself is a fine example of the crimes a gang of criminals perpetrated in a very close time span of 4 years, and it truly shocks with its findings. This is its purpose: the 'he' here is the self-referential John Poulter.

 

                                                                                                                     Figure 19: Title page of The Discoveries of John Poulter. 1774. 

 

"The next Day Tobin and I went on the Sneak to the Black-Swan Inn in Coney-Street, York, and stole from thence a Silver Tankard, and a large Sugar Caster" (p.8, Poulter)

 

 


 

"Sweet amusements for leisure hours"- Sugar as Learning:

 

Sugar is not coterminous with its history. Rather, the term takes on new meanings in literary texts throughout this period. Some of them do indeed invoke the slavery practices with which sugar is evidently associated. Others, however, explore or present sugar as synonymous with sweetness, delight, and leisure.

 

Poetry was an expanding medium in the 18th century; though soon to be replaced by the emergence of the novel as we now see it,  from Pope and Swift to Duck and Collier, poetry was a means of expressing and challenging what writers saw as the contemporary impulses of the 18th century. One concrete example of the poetics of empire is James Grainger's long poem, The Sugar Cane first published in 1764. Tellingly inspired by the epic tradition, particularly Virgil's Georgics as an anonymous book reviewer points out, it cleverly parallels the emergence of aesthetics versus the empire building across the century. Evidently using the sugar cane as both a physical object and a metaphor for colonialism and the slave trade (wrapped up in the rise of empire), the poem seeks to describe life on an eighteenth-century sugar plantation. What is immediately striking, however, is the reason Grainger gives for writing this poem: 

 

 

                                                                                                                                Figure 20: Extract from the Preface of The Sugar Cane. 1764. (p. 4)

Not only is the reason that he wishes to describe practices because they are different from the European scene, but also - and on which he strangely gives little emphasis in the subordinate clause - the clear "novelty" and "importance" of this. We can see, then, how even in the latter half of the period, concerns about sugar plantations were still seen as not only different, but relevant, and seeping into the rhetoric of the great writers of the age. Nevertheless, this is one of the greatest examples of the sugar plantation industry in this period.

 

Perhaps more optimistically, there is a wealth literature which presents sugar as possessing the qualities with which we identify today: not least sweetness and delight. An interesting example of how the colonial concerns of sugar are simply ignored is a wonderful collection of stories by E. Newbery, The sugar plumb; or sweet amusement for leisure hours: being an entertaining and instructive collection of stories. Embellished with curious cuts, published in 1788.

 

Figure 21: Frontispiece from The Sugar-Plumb; Or Sweet Amusements For Leisure Hours. 1788.

 

 

If we look at the subtitle, or witticism, on the bottom of the cover page more clearly, we can see:

Figure 22: Enlargement of subtitle of frontispiece from The Sugar-Plumb; Or Sweet Amusement For Leisure Hours. 1788.

 

Given that the first story in the collection is that of 'King Lear, and his Three Daughters', we might take something from the fact that a play about death and madness, especially of the title character; we might find it odd for this to be included in a collection of stories intended for children. It is possible that the moral of the story is to be that favouritism and vying for it is not acceptable? Regardless, it is a bleak story, full to the brim with tragedy, and this does not seem to be our idea of 'leisure' in the 18th century. The title of the 'Sugar Plumb' may, however, be explained by the fact that this term was used to mean something 'pleasing or agreeable', in some sense perhaps a term of affection; thus it would be a 'moral tale' to tell young children, the 'Sugar Plumbs', of the dangers of acting in certain ways.  

 

Good 'ol Mr Locke: Pamela and the Sugar-Plum:

 

 Samuel Richardson's novel, Pamela, also contains the Sugar Plumb. The term in this context is used both as a metaphor, and as a physical object: a boiled sweet. However, Pamela, the eponyomous character, is actually recounting the words of John Locke, the great late 17th century philosopher and contributor to the so-called 'Enlightenment' movement. Pamela is very fond of Locke in her account of the events that pass between her and Mr B. Indeed, citing Some Thoughts Concerning Education, published in 1693:

 

"On the other Side, to flatter Children by Rewards of Things, that are pleasant to them, is as carefully to be avoided. He that will give his Son Apples, or Sugar-plums, or what else of this kind he is most delighted with, to make him learn his Book, does but authorize his Love of Pleasure, and cockers up that dangerous Propensity, which he ought, by all means, to subdue and stifle in him. You can never hope to teach him to master it, whilst you compound for the Check you give his Inclination in one Place, by the Satisfaction you propose to it in another: To make a good, a wife, and a virtuous Man, 'tis fit he should learn to cross his Appetite, and deny his Inclination to Riches, Finery, or pleasing his Palate, &c. " 

 

Pamela is here using Locke's passage to explore the feelings she might have to Mr B., her rapist and kidnapper. She begins to start falling for him, but she knows that he is above her status as a servant-maid. This does not stop her contemplating her predicament in the context of sexual attraction. She here uses the temptation that Mr B. holds for Pamela as a kind of sweetness: the sugar plumb is the temptation itself. She is, if it can be said, misappropriating Locke's words and making them fit her situation. Pamela is acutely aware of her feelings, and her articulate citation of Locke only serves to exemplify her status as a morally-educated and rational individual. Pamela, doubtlessly, has a lust for 'Love of Pleasure', but she meditates on Locke's warning that virtue - arguably the most prevalent theme in the original text of Pamela - is to be achieved by resisting desire. Thus, she should learn, just like the imaginative child to whom Locke is alluding, to 'cross [her] Appetite', if she wishes to remain virtuous, that is. In multiple ways, then, the use of 'Sugar-plums' in this text epitomises both the metaphorical and physical sweetness of sugar. Of course, we must attribute these words to Locke, but Pamela citing them places them in an 18th century context. 

 

 

Sugar: 3 Centuries On, and We're Still Talking About it


         Video 1: Budget 2016: Osborne announces soft drinks 'sugar tax'

 

The Chancellor, George Osborne, yesterday announced in his Budget, that with effect from 2018, there will be a sugar levy on the soft drinks industry, The particulars are less relevant to this discussion of sugar than the notion that this product is a commodity; once steeped in history, it now serves the global economy to such an extent that we are now doing everything we can to stop consuming as much of it. And to think, it starts with a humble sugar cane.

 

 

Annotated Bibliography:

 

Primary Sources:


 

Anon. The Art of Making Sugar. London. 1752. Historical Texts. Web. 1st March 2016.

 

  •      The first text I used when looking at sugar. It gives a helpful background and introduction to the processes of sugar making. This lead to me to exploring some of its contents, including the different types of sugar available in the century. 

 

Anon. Of the Sugar-Cane, And Making Of Sugar. London. Printed for J. Stratford. 1749. Literature Online. Web. 1st March 2016.

 

  • This was mainly used for the representation of the sugar-making process, as detailed in Figure 5.

 

 Anon. Some Considerations Touching The Sugar Colonies, With Political Observations In Respect To Trade. London. Printed for John Clarke. 1732. Historical Texts. Web. 1st March 2016.

 

  • This text was very politically charged, and the considerations regarding the price of sugar enabled me to search for other other links with trade, namely secondary sources.

 

Anon. Proposals Offered For The Sugar Planters Redress. London. Printed for J. Wilford. 1733. Historical Texts. Web. 1st March 2016.

  •      Similar to the text above, it allowed me to look at another opinion on the problems pertaining to sugar in the 18th century. 

 

Anon. Lowlife, or, One Half of the World Knows Not How the Other Half Lives. London: Printed for John Lever. 1764. Print.

 

  • The observations of the speaker in this text showed me how class and sugar were definitely entwined. The perspective of a someone less high up in society enabled a comparison with Pamela, whose status is quite clearly different to the speaker in Low-life.

 

Anon. A Plain Man’s Thoughts On The Present Price of Sugar, &c. London. Printed for J. Debrett. 1792. Historical Texts. Web. 1st March 2016.

 

  • To have an ordinary citizens thoughts on the price of sugar showed me how what was happening thousands of miles away in the West Indies was having a direct impact on those who lived in England, and desired sugar.

 

Anon. The Sugar-Plumb; Or Sweet Amusements For Leisure Hours. London. Printed for E. Newbery. 1788. Historical Texts. Web. 14th March 2016.

 

  • I found it challenging to make sense of everything this poem is trying to achieve. Is it satirical, didactic, or simply narratorial? I was not sure, but I clearly demonstrated how sugar was being used for all its qualities. The sugar-plumb notion was especially interesting compared with such as we have in Pamela

 

Barrett, Robert. A Companion For Midwives, Child-Bearing Women, And Nurses Directing Them How To Perform Their Respective Offices. London. Printed for Tho. Ax. 1699. Historical Texts. Web. 1st March 2016.

 

  • This was a surprise. I was not looking for texts about sugar in early stages of life, and this text opened a whole new mini world of how sugar was used for its sweet qualities, not just for pleasure, but out of necessity, it seems.

 

Briggs, Richard. The English art of cookery, according to the present practice; being a complete guide to all housekeepers, on a plan entirely new. Cork. Printed by J. Connor. 1790?. Historical Texts. Web. 4th March 2016.

 

  • The recipe for sugar cakes was fascinating, since it had as its main ingredient sugar. Now, we think of sugar as an addition - which it was also in the 18th century - but to look at 18th-century shortbread was pretty surprising, especially since we now ignore the huge amount of sugar in our humble shortbread.

 

Defoe, Daniel. THE LIFE And Strange Surprizing ADVENTURES OF ROBINSON CRUSOE. London?. 1719. Literature Online. Web. 6th March 2016.

 

  • I used this text to the same end as I did Equiano's account; only, I was able to see the sheer diversity of Crusoe's 'jobs' as illustrative examples of slave labour. What was particularly captivating was the way in which Crusoe essentially inhabits all the roles in the sugar production industry; including slave owner, and slave.

 

Equiano, Olaudah. The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano. London?. 1794. Literature Online. Web. 4th March 2016. 

 

  • A big text, whose intrinsic relation to the Atlantic slave trade was hugely important. It allowed me analyse in detail the positions of those who are on the other side of the sugar mania. Equiano's account was picked apart carefully to reveal sugar as more foreign, not only literally, but metaphorically.

 

Glasse, Hannah. The Compleat Confectioner, Or The Whole Art of Confectionary Made Plain And Easy. Dublin. Printed by John Exshaw. 1762. Historical Texts. Web. 1st March 2016.

 

  • What might be described as a canonical cooking book, this writer has hundreds of different recipes, and it was really interesting to see how sugar is used - not just on its own - but in things, as an addition, just as Johnson says in Punch

 

 Grainger, James. The Sugar Cane: A Poem. Dublin. Printed by William Sleater. 1766. Historical Texts. Web. 15th march 2016.

 

  • This poem is often sees as a defining symbol in the discourses which emerge around sugar and slavery. It was analysed especially in the light of sugar as a novelty. Even by the late 1700s, sugar was somehow still being seen as new; more crucially, however, as important.

 

Johnson, Samuel. Punch and Conversation, in ‘The Idler’. 1758. Historical Texts. Web. 4th March 2016.

 

  •      This source is used as a way in to describing the properties of sugar. The ironic and humourous tone of the entry is interesting. 

 

Locke, John. Some Thoughts Concerning Education. London. Printed for A. and J. Churchill. 1693. Historical Texts. Web. 15th March 2016.

 

  • Locke's text was instrumental in showing how the sugar-plumb in Pamela was representative of the desire and sweetness with which Mr B. attracts her. I could see sugar in this way as displaying numerous characteristics, all of which are used to full effect in this text. What I primarily wanted to discover, was the resistance there was to sugar in this regard. If it represents Mr B.'s sexual attractions, then they are to be avoided at all costs.

 

Poulter, John. The Discoveries of John Poulter. Sherborne. Printed for R. Goadby in Sherborne; and sold by W. Owen, and J. Towers. 1774. Historical Texts. Web. 12th March 2016. 

  • Recounting the details of crimes committed between 1749 and 1753 revealed the extent of organised crime in this period.

 

Richardson, Samuel. Pamela. London. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 2008. Print.

 

  • A text whose vile themes of rape and sexual conduct were not looked at in this project. What this text enabled me to do was look at a slightly lighter mode of sugar agency: the sugar-plumb.

 

Rush, Benjamin. An Account Of The Sugar Maple-Tree, Of The United States, And Of The Methods Of Obtaining Sugar From It. London reprinted by J. Phillips. 1792. Historical Texts. Web. 1st March 2016.

 

  • Whilst clearly not relevant to the UK, this account of the Maple Tree and its properties was useful to gaining a different perspective on obtaining and making sugar.

 

Rymer, James. Chemical Reflections Relating To The Nature, Causes, Prevention And, Cure Of Some Diseases. London. Printed for T. Evans. 1784. Historical Texts. Web. 1st March 2016.

 

  • Rymer's account of sugar as facilitating great wine was wildly passionate in its defence of sugar as a superior base product in its production. When contrasted to the traditional grape, this enabled me to see how different people began to develop preferences for their wine products; sugar as superior was an interesting theme to look at.

 

Short, Thomas. Discourses on Tea, Sugar, Milk, Made-wines, Spirits, Punch, Tobacco, &c: With Plain and Useful Rules for Gouty People. Madrid. Published for T. Longman and A. Millar. 1750. Print.

 

  • Especially relevant to discussion of class, this was quite a funny and enlightening text, and allowed me to pursue further research into the uses of sugar as a status symbol.

 

Smith, Eliza. The Compleat Housewife: or, Accomplish'd Gentlewoman's Companion. London. Printed for J. and J. Pemberton. 1736. Historical Texts. Web. 1st March 2016.

 

  • Essentially, this just provided me with yet another manual of cookery, and when I sifted through I found so much to do with sugar.

 

Swift, Johnathan. VERSES made for Women who cry Apples , &c., in ‘From The Poems of Jonathan Swift’. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 2008. Print.

 

  • I only used a small extract from Swift's poem; fittingly satirical, it added a bit of humour to what could otherwise have been a mundane analysis of sugar. The quality of sweetness was again noted.

 

 

Secondary Sources:


 

 

Guardian Wires. “Budget 2016: Osborne announces soft drinks 'sugar tax'”. Online video clip. Youtube. Youtube. 16th March 2016. Web. 17th March 2015.

 

  • I thought I would finish on a note which illustrates both that the discussion of sugar in this century has hardly decreased compared to that in the 18th century, as well as the fact that sugar is still being seen as something requiring control and limit, just as it was in the 1700s.

 

Mclynn, Frank. Crime and Punishment in Eighteenth-Century England. Oxford: Psychology Press. 1989. Print.

 

  • McLynn's detailed analysis of the way crime and punishment functioned in the 18th century allowed me to really flesh out my corruption section with precise examples. I was lead to a number of different cases at the Old Bailey, which I looked at in depth, and found various crimes relating to the theft of sugar and other commodities. 

 

Olsen, Kirsten. Daily Life in 18th-century England. London. Greenwood Publishing Group. 1999. Print.

 

  • Kirsten offers some somewhat unusual additions to this project. She explained to me how it was that sugar was used in different ways, especially with regards to childbirth; which was, perhaps, an avenue down which I never expected to go. Nevertheless, it was proof of alternative forms of sugar usage in this period.

 

Sheridan, Richard B. 'The Formation of Caribbean Plantation Society, 1689-1748', in The Oxford History of the British Empire: Volume II: The Eighteenth Century, ed. by P.J. Marshall. New York: Oxford University Press. 1998. Print. (pp. 394-414).

 

  • Evidently, I needed to do some background research into the slavery aspect of sugar, though I was careful not be carried away by its complex web of consequences. Sheridan really just provided a basis from which I could substantiate the information I was to find in my ensuing research. The prices, in particular, were of great interest and help to me, as I could see the trend of sugar prices in the 18th century.

 

Willan, Thomas Stuart. An Eighteenth-century Shopkeeper: Abraham Dent of Kirkby Stephen. Manchester: Manchester University Press. 1970. Print.

 

  • This showed me one point on which I expanded in this project. Sugar was still expensive, but widely bought. This concept was one I needed to research further, and Willan's contemporary discussion of the uses of sugar lead me to further refine my section on  the price of sugar.

 

Williams, Eric. Laissez Faire, Sugar and Slavery., in ‘Political Science Quarterly’. The Academy of Political Science. Vol. 58. 1943. Jstor. Web. 1st March 2016.

 

  • The aspects of mercantilism which are discussed in this text informed the shape of my project in general, allowing me to look at the monopoly the sugar of sugar cultivation as possession of the West Indies, as well as the inherent difficult of sugar production in this period: it was unprofitable.

 

Criminal Trials and Confessions of the Old Bailey. Accessed via: <http://www.oldbaileyonline.org/static/Ordinarys-accounts.jsp>

 

  • This informed my whole section on sugar and corruption, and showed me the plethora of cases arising with the theft of sugar. This then lead me to evaluate my other sections, with a view to explaining how sugar was very valuable and desirable. 

 

National Archives. Currency Converter, accessed via:<http://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/currency/default.asp#mid>

  • This was crucial to me in converting 18th century currency into today's money. This was sometimes difficult, but certainly worth the maths to demonstrate the value of sugar during this period, and how much that would mean now. 

 

Images and Video:


Figure 1) Jan Brandes- picture of a sugar cane. Accessed via ArtStor:

<http://0-library.artstor.org.pugwash.lib.warwick.ac.uk/library/printImage.jsp?imageurl=http%3A//imgserver.artstor.net/sslps/c35953/8565685.fpx/wdjhH3k1gyM4jHsfPcgAyA/1458036537/%3Fcell%3D400%2C400%26rgnn%3D0%2C0%2C1%2C1%26cvt%3DJPEG>

 

Figure 2)  Rudolph Christ. Late 18th century sugar pot. Accessed via ArtStor:

<http://0-library.artstor.org.pugwash.lib.warwick.ac.uk/library/iv2.html?parent=true#> 

 

Figure 3) Google Ngram viewer, accessed via <https://books.google.com/ngrams/graph?content=sugar&year_start=1700&year_end=1800&corpus=15&smoothing=10&share=&direct_url=t1%3B%2Csugar%3B%2Cc0>

 

Figure 4) Historical Texts search result, accessed via <https://historicaltexts.jisc.ac.uk/results?terms=sugar&date=1700-1799&undated=exclude> 

 

Figures 5-22: See description, and associated reference above.

 

Video 1) Guardian Wires. “Budget 2016: Osborne announces soft drinks 'sugar tax'”. Online video clip. Youtube. Youtube. 16th March 2016. Web. 17th March 2015., generated at 

<https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=x25SbOVmUv4>

 

Dictionaries


OED:

 

'sugar', accessed via<http://0-www.oed.com.pugwash.lib.warwick.ac.uk/view/Entry/193624?rskey=HdoYNW&result=1&isAdvanced=false>

 

'sugar-plum', accessed via <http://0-www.oed.com.pugwash.lib.warwick.ac.uk/view/Entry/193646?rskey=htNOmR&result=1&isAdvanced=false#eid>

 

'wormwood', accessed via<http://0-www.oed.com.pugwash.lib.warwick.ac.uk/view/Entry/230312?redirectedFrom=wormwood++cake#eid13870952>

 

Other:

 

Johnson, Samuel. Johnson’s Dictionary of The English Language in Miniature. New York. Published and Printed by G. Long. 1819. Readex. Web. 1st March 2016., generated at 

 

<http://0-infoweb.newsbank.com.pugwash.lib.warwick.ac.uk/iw-search/we/Evans/?p_product=EAIX&p_theme=eai&p_nbid=T5FQ54JSMTQ1MjYxNjU1MS42NTI1NzM6MToxMzoxMzcuMjA1LjUwLjQy&p_action=doc&p_queryname=page2&f_qdnum=1&f_qrnum=1&f_qname=1&f_qnext=&f_qprev=&p_docref=v2:0F2B1FCB879B099B@EAIX-104405E88937FC40@48382-@97>  

takes sugar beet, or Beta vulgaris, as the primary source of sugar today. In the mid-18th century, the discovery of this plant led to an exponential rise in the production of sugar, as the graphs above clearly show. However, what is more interesting is the wealth of material which pertains to the process of obtaining sugar from various different trees, including the Maple. When analysing the canes of the sugar cane, an anonymous writer of 1752 tells us in extraordinary detail “The Art of Making Sugar […]”. 

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