| 
  • If you are citizen of an European Union member nation, you may not use this service unless you are at least 16 years old.

  • You already know Dokkio is an AI-powered assistant to organize & manage your digital files & messages. Very soon, Dokkio will support Outlook as well as One Drive. Check it out today!

View
 

Panada

Page history last edited by Alexandra Chirica 8 years ago

 

 

Oxford English Dictionary definition of Panada - A simple dish consisting of bread boiled to a pulp and flavoured, or A paste or gruel of breadcrumbs, toast, or flour combined with milk, stock, or water and used for making soups, 

binding forcemeats, or thickening sauces.

 

 

Gruel, porridge and panada were part of the day-to-day meals of eighteenth century citizens, ranging from the upper echelons of society to the lowest. It played a key role in the care for infants, ill patients as well as light meals and pudding. The production of panada also gives an interesting insight into other facets of society, such as the production of bread, harvesting and class distinction. Harvesting data shows the price of bread fluctuating between each year, yet steadily increasing. This suggests that the dish became more and more associated with the upper classes, leaving the lower classes with oatmeal and barley cakes. Feeding panada to infants also led to high infant mortality rates amongst the elites, due to the use of the pap-boat and a distinct lack of nutrients necessary in panada for the child's growth.  


 

 

- Cookery

-  Bread 

- Milk

- Infancy

- Medicine

Cookery


 


 Panada was considered a soft skilled dish to produce, as it simply required the boiling of bread and the addition of seasoning. It was considered a versatile recipe as seasoning of the panada could range from the use of nutmeg, to wine; flavouring it with either savoury or sweet ingredients and serving it as either a pudding or a main to people of all ages, but predominantly infants. The dish was also used as a thickening agent and an ingredient in its own right for recipes such as forcedmeats where it functions as an emulsifier for other recipes. In The Book of Household Management by Mrs.Isabella Beeton, panada is seen as one of the three essential ingredients in making forcemeats such as the ‘Veal Quenelles.’

 

Hannah Glasse and Isabella Beeton were amongst the first women to publish recipe books, both including panada as a food thickening agent. The Art of Cookery Made Plain and Easy 1747, provided the lower class chefs an easy and comprehendible book of simplified French recipes to make and serve to the members of the upper classes. The use of French recipes is important in the book as it makes reference to the process of ‘panade’, which is the etymology of panada and where the word derives from. Within the recipe book, panada as a finished product is not mentioned but the process is   alluded to in making the ‘Mutton Broth’(159) for instance, where the same process is used, by ‘boiling a good crust of bread’ to act as the thickening agent in the recipe. 

 

Figure 1:  Front cover of Hannah Glasse, The Art of Cookery Made Plain and Easy, published in London 1747, one of the first cook books available highlighting some of the main popular dishes in the eighteenth century, with recipes deriving from the French. 

 

 

Figure 2: Sweet Panada recipe by Elizabeth Raffled in The Experienced English Housekeeper, the index of the cookbook also suggests replacing nutmeg with cinammon or any other sweet seasoning preferable to the individual  

 

Elizabeth Raffled’s book shows a recipe  for both sweet or savoury panada dishes, again highlighting its versatility in the kitchen as a dessert or main. However, her recipe includes luxurious items such as ‘Madeira Wine’ and even ‘cream.’ Whilst it does not explicitly mention that the book is aimed at members of the upper classes, it is implied that the book is for house maids in charge of a larger household and for those who would be able to afford 'Madeira wine' and cream. It was noted by William Buchan that ‘Poor people…run directly to their  rich neighbours for cordials and wine’ when their families are taken ill, suggesting that wine was not a commonplace ingredient used in food amongst the lower classes.

 

Figure 3: Savoury panada recipe by Elizabeth Raffled in The Experienced English Housekeeper -
                         

The savoury recipe includes ingredients such as butter, sugar and cream. Whilst there is no specific reference to the type of bread necessary for panada, William Salmon does suggest in his definition of panada that it must include 'pure white bread', and the best quality of wheat. The recipes nevertheless demonstrate the variety, creativity and usefulness of this dish, however, they do seem to suggest that good flavouring of the dishes come with more expensive ingredients not readily available to the majority of ordinary people. 

 

 Bread


The quality of the panada relied heavily on the production of bread, which was considered ‘the staple diet’ during the 18th century. Although panada can be soaked in milk/water/broth, it was predominantly made with pure wheat as opposed to barley and grains. However, the production of wheat became increasingly expensive. In 1793, an average working class man would have received approximately 10 shillings a week according to the Annals of Agriculture, the equivalent of £42.58 in 2005. Some accounts, such as

General View of the Agriculture of the Isle of Man suggests that the price of labour per day increased to 8pence a day, creating a total amount of £12 a year. The two texts underneath show a set of contractual rules that ‘poor people’ in certain local areas must abide to in order to receive extra allowances. The first text shows T.Estcour ending his letter with ‘we therefore expect wheat will still be advancing in price’, suggesting that the price of wheat has been exponentially growing, making it difficult for ‘poor people’ to afford. The documents underneath give an interesting insight into the labour done by men, women and children in agriculture and the way they were paid for this, such as the 'Poor workers allowance' scheme put in place to reward them with '3 bushels of coal’. The document shows a very controlled working system where labourers must ‘use their utmost exertion’ to meet the demands put in place by the supervisor. Their low family income and strenuous working hours show not an idyllic agricultural working environment, but the struggle to be able to afford bread. 

Figures 4 & 5: Both images are taken from the Annals of Agriculture, and Other Useful Arts. By Arthur Young, Vol. XXXIV published in London.

 

William Playfair’s chart created in 1822 and in displayed in his letter On Our Agricultural Distresses, Their Causes and Remedies: Accompanied with Tables and Copper-Plate Charts, shewing and comparing the Prices of Wheat, Bread and Labour, from 1565 to 1821, demonstrates the steadily increasing, yet fluctuating price of wheat for the production of bread.

 


Figure 6: William Playfair's chart showing the fluctuating price of Bread, Wheat and Labour in On Our Agricultural Distresses, Their Causes and Remedies: Accompanied with Tables and Copper-Plate Charts. 


Using this chart to see the price of a quarter of wheat and the average salary mentioned above, it can be calculated that the price of bread would have cost an average worker 1 shilling a week, roughly 15% of a workers weekly wages.  Bad harvests affected the price of bread as the terrible agricultural conditions of the late eighteenth century almost tripled the costs in London and the midlands to 6pence a loaf. The price of a loaf was locally fixed depending on the harvest in the area, yet the overall trend seems to suggest an increase in bread prices. What complicated matters for the lower classes further apart from the natural causes,  was the implementation of the Household Bread Act in 1757 whereby half the bread that was sold had to be ‘Household Bread’. By law, Household Bread had a higher proportion of coarse grain mixed back into flour.  However, the majority of people 'disliked it' and found it 'distasteful' as the commoners much preferred bread made from proper wheat even thought it was more expensive.  Due to the implementation of this act alongside the high prices of bread during the late eighteenth century, it was noted by Walker in 1814 that ‘poor people’ ate more oatmeal and porridge, as oat was easier and cheaper to grow than wheat. 

 

Figure 7: A chart showing the price of a quarter loaf in London created by John Hearfield. 

 

These figures created by John Hearfield using William Playfair's chart seem to show that whilst bread was a staple food for the lower and middle classes, it proved to be expensive at times due to the poor production of wheat, noted in Estcourt's letter. Good quality bread was not always affordable for the commoners and who were left with barley, oatmeal or coarse bread. The increase of oat production highlights its popularity as a cheaper alternative, increasing the popularity of oatmeal, as opposed to panada. The data ultimately seems to suggest that only the middle and upper classes could afford to eat good quality panada. As noted in Samuel Johnson's A Journey to the Western Isles of Scotland in his observations of Coriatachan in Sky described the native bread as being "made of oats, or barley...the blackness of their colour raises some dislike." In Johnson's account of Lough Ness, he mentions how an elderly mother sent his son to buy 'meal, by which oatmeal is always meant – a Meal (the mother) considered as expensive food'. Johnson's account seems to show that even barley and oat, cheaper alternatives to wheat was being used and even then it was considered.  Although Household bread was available for the lower classes, it was distasteful and when used to make panada and was in fact considered dangerous for feeding infants because the coarseness of the bread had the ability to choke young children. 

 

Milk




Panada was most commonly made with milk and/or water, however, due to the increased price of milk, less people were able to afford it so it was substituted for broth. Milk was one of the main components of panada and given to infants because of the nutrition it provides from cow/goats milk. However, some infants from poorer families were unable to benefit from the panada that was made with broth as opposed to milk, causing young children to suffer from illnesses due to the lack of nutrition provided. William Salmon’s description of panada in The English Herbal: Or History of Plants as being ‘made with water, Milk, and Water, and sometimes with Milk alone of the purest and finest White Bread, and chiefly for Infants and Children’ (573). Salmon’s comment reiterates the fact that panada was made with chiefly pure white bread and milk. Evaluating the ingredients that make up panada gives an insight into the nutritional benefits it provided, whom it was provided to and who was able to provide it. 

 

 Figure 8: An article released September 26th, 1800 on the advance in the price of milk and a protest advising people to refuse to purchase any milk for their families at such an advanced price, in the hope that they would reduce it.  

 

Unlike the fluctuating price of wheat for the production of bread, milk was less dependent on harvesting, temperature and the condition of the soil but instead corrrelated with how many cows/goats an area had. The price of the milk, in the same way as bread, was determined locally as some counties produced far more than others. The price of milk was far more expensive in London due to the simple fact that there were less cows in the capital. Small countryside areas benefited more from the production of milk, and therefore the ability to make panada, which would consequently benefit the child and its health. The price of milk does not seem to indicate an overt contrasting distinction between those who were able to make panada and those who were not, in comparisons with the clear contrast of bread. However, it does suggest that the availability of milk to the majority of people would confirm panada as being one of the most common meals produced in the eighteenth century, which has at some point in history ceased to be made. 

 

Infancy


 

Panada was commonly fed to infants as a substitute for breast-feeding. Before the invention of bottles and formula, breast-feeding and wet nursing (a woman who breast-feeds and cares for another's child) was the safest and most common alternative to the natural mother's breastmilk. However, society's negative view of wet nursing combined with improvements in the availability of animals milk and feeding bottles such as the pap-boat, gradually led to the substitution of artificial feeding from wet nursing.  Infants were fed panada out of ‘pap-boats’ which became an increasingly popular object (refer to figures 6, 7 and 8) and was used to  stuff great quantities of food down the infant’s throats having been previously chewed by the nurse to facilitate digestion, who then gave them breastmilk to better dilute the pap.

 

 

Figure 9: W. Cadogan, Doctor of Physics wrote An Essay upon Nursing and the Management of Children, from their Birth to Three Years of Age, which gives mothers the advice to 'cram a dab' panada in the infants mouths. Whilst this was a common practise for feeding infants, it proved to be dangerous and life threatening. 

 

Breast-feeding became progressively meaningless in the eighteenth century since it was universally customary to give pap and panada in addition to the breast. However, feeding panada through the use of a pap boat was argued by De Claubry in 1738 to be ‘the most dangerous of all foods for infants’ in that ‘it has caused to perish a great number, or has rendered them infirm and diseased all their lives.’ Artificial infant feeding became popular amongst the upper classes because of the use of the pap-boat. Different designs and custom made pap boats were created and whilst the social circumstances of the infants were first class, bad feeding methods would take their toll and cause infant mortality. The use of the pap-boat for panada led to infant mortality due to the build up of bacteria at the tip of the feeding vessel, which over time killed the child due to their immune system being unable to handle the accumulated bacteria. Furthermore, panada was not always made with milk but broth, thus, many infants failed to receive the right nutrients necessary for their growth. The experience of the Countess of Lincoln at the end of the sixteenth century and of Queen Anne (all of whose eighteen children died in infancy) at the beginning of the eighteenth century show how it was predominatly upper class members who experiences infant mortality; conversely, in the most humble of homes ‘no doubt many poor mothers successfully reared their offspring on the breast’ (Ian G. Wickes). Whilst there are few records of infant mortality in the 18th century, Sir Hans Sloane’s letter to the vice president of the Foundling Hospital wrote that the mortality rate of hand-fed infants was 53.9% as compared with the 18.2% for those suckled at the breast. Whilst there are various factors which led to infant mortality, the use of the pap-boat to feed infants panada in conjunction with the lack of nutrients in the food itself because of the lack of breast milk, favouring cow or goats milk led to the rise of infant mortality amongst the upper classes. Ultimately, there is a clear paradox in regards to the health of infants. Those who were more affluent had the ability to use pap-boats and cow/goats milk in panada, yet the lack of breast feeding that was necessary for  the baby’s vital nutrients along with the increased bacteria in the feeding vessel led to high infant mortality rates. Whilst, the lower classes were unable to afford milk due to its increasing price and thus relied on breast-feeding for the infant's and consequently leading to a much lower infant mortality rate. Despite the better conditions of the upper classes, the negative social stigma attached to breast-feeding and popular, custom made pap-boats, were employed to the detriment of the child. 

 

 

Figure 10: Silver Pap Boat, London, England, 1767, Sheer, William, Science Museum, Blythe house - circular with repousse design on sides - The exterior silver design is indicative of the family's wealth, as it was fashionable for infants to have custom made pap boats either for use or for decorative purposes.  

 

Figure 11: Plain silver pear-shaped pap boat with open top - belonged to Captain James Cook (1728-79) and his wife Elizabeth. It was part of a collection of Cook relics given by Henry A. Baron to the Admiralty in the 1930s. The tip of the pap boat used to be washed with a scalpel knife, however, this did not remove the bacteria where it would accumulate over time.

 

 

Figure 12: Complete silver Pap boat, open boat shape, English, 1785 possibly created by Hester Bateman. Despite no exterior design of any sort, pap - boats were predominantly used by members of the upper classes. 

 

Medicine


 

Whilst panada was the most common food for infants, it was also one of the primary meals given to patients that were recovering from a variety of different illnesses and diseases. Patients suffering from spotted fever, yellow fever, inflammation of the brain and even post pregnancy pain would follow a regimen that included only ‘light’ food, in this case, panada. However, the panada was unseasoned to make sure the flavouring was neutral and not to upset the stomach. Wine was commonly used as well as citrus fruits such as oranges (refer to wine and orange page for more information.) There were many disputes during the eighteenth century concerning whether the use of wine as medicine was beneficial, as it was commonly used in panada for patients. Medics such as Peter Shaw published a treatise arguing that wine was a better treatment for the sick than water1 . William Buchan's also suggests that adding wine to the panada mixture can help numb the pain of the illness/disease.  An entire section of his publication of the Domestic Medicine,or, treatise on the prevention and cure of diseases, by regimen and simple medicines is dedicated to making wine-based treatments, including panada. He appears to share the same views as Shaw, writing that "no medicine is more rarely obtained genuine than wine." H e recommends that wine is used in panada as he had  “known several hysteric women whose spirits could not be supported in child-bed without generous liqueurs- to such, a glass of wine must be allowed.” 

 

Figure 13: William Buchan's Domestic medicine; or the Family Physician - 1771, Philadelphia publication, A guide showing different home remedies to treat simple diseases or illnesses, also including post pregnancy remedies. This text highlights the regimen necessary for women after pregnancy and the light food that they must consume during this period.  

 

 

Figure 14:  An Account of the Putrid Sore Throat by John Fothergill M.D. sixth edition, London. Fothergill, in his account of treating a sore throat, denotes the controversial disputes over the use of wine for medicinal purposes with the mention of 'some of the Italian physicians forbade the use wine.' 

 

A large number of published articles such as the Diseases Incident to Armies - With the Method of Cure  by Gerard Swieten along with William Buchan's publications use panada as part of the process of curing ailments due to the light nature of the meal, which eases the stomach as opposed to food that is harder to digest. It's medicinal purpose, along with the addition of wine, shows once again how versatile panada was in the eighteenth century - how it was used to facilitate the patient in getting better. The texts below are literary references to the use of panada, which all appear to be used in the context of health, rather than a nice meal or pudding. 

William Combe’s poem Champagne, Sherry, and Water Gruel (1742) addresses panada in a medical term:

 

‘Panada, and the doses,

Which the Physician’s pen composes,

Is the Chevalier’s daily theme;

and I presume, his nightly dream.’

 

The extract from the poem highlights panada as part of a prescription a medic would give to a patient. It appears to be that the use of panada during the eighteenth century can be seen as the equivalent of the modern day 'chicken soup', which carries connotations of a meal that is had when someone is taken ill. Another literary example is a dialogue between two men in David Garrick’s play The Male-Coquette (1757), which uses the term panada in a similar medicinal way, referring to it as something must be taken when someone is feeling unwell. 

 

"Lord Racket: Now you talk of dying --- how does your Cousin Dizzy? 

Daffodil: Lingers on---better and worse---lives upon Asses Milk, Panada, and Eringo root."

 

In Thomas Morton’s A School for Grown Children panada is mentioned by 'Old Rev' who is desperately trying to get better from ‘this asthma’ by saying ‘I’ll sip panada: I’ll munch water-cresses: I’ll rise with the lark, fly up with the hens: (Coughs)’. The references to panada in these few texts are also all in relation to adults, with very few, if any literary texts mentioning panada as a pudding or a meal but primarily focuses on its medical use. 

 


 

Bibliography

 

Primary sources

 

Recipes by Elizabeth Raffled in The Experienced English Housekeeper

 

The recipe book gave an interesting insight into the amount of different recipes that derived from the French and the overall influence of French cuisine in an ‘English’ Household. Unlike Glasse’s recipe book, it showed Panada as being used in forcemeats as an emulsifier which was interesting.

https://data.historicaltexts.jisc.ac.uk/view?pubId=Shibboleth.sso&pageNum=Login

 

 

Hannah Glasse, The Art of Cookery Made Plain and Easy, published in London 1747

 

Glasse’s recipe book shows some of the most common and basic recipes, which is perhaps why there is a section on sweet and savoury panada, as other more complex cook books fail to refer to these dishes, despite their popularity.

https://data.historicaltexts.jisc.ac.uk/view?pubId=ecco-0279200700&terms=The%20Art%20of%20Cookery%20Made%20Plain%20and%20Easy%201747&pageTerms=The%20Art%20of%20Cookery%20Made%20Plain%20and%20Easy%201747&pageId=ecco-0279200700-10

 

 

William Buchan, Domestic Medicine

 

Buchan’s treatise on the prevention and cure of diseases mentions a number of times the importance of following a regime for curing an illness and one of the main meals that is shown for doing this is panada mixed with wine. A very good source on showing how Panada has a practical use rather than simply showing the recipe.

https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Z7VbAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA116&lpg=PA116&dq=run+directly+to+their++rich+neighbours+for+cordials+and+wine&source=bl&ots=22ZLY0E3_z&sig=2k2WZlC1C1iaghLfkE2d2gTZHJw&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwi25cHBoMPLAhVHvRoKHfFjAAYQ6AEIITAB#v=onepage&q=run%20directly%20to%20their%20%20rich%20neighbours%20for%20cordials%20and%20wine&f=false

 

 

Samuel Johnson's A Journey to the Western Isles of Scotland in his observations of Coriatachan in Sky

 

Interesting to see how Johnson comments on the type of food the Scottish people were eating as if they it would have been any different to what was being eaten in England. however, it is interesting to note those who were not able to eat white bread in England also resorted to barley/oatmeal. 

http://www.online-literature.com/samuel-johnson/journey-to-scotland/19/

 

 

Fothergill, M.D. An Account of the Putrid Sore Throat. London

 

Another interesting account which recommends a light meal as part of the curing process of a sore throat, however, very limited in explaining how the panada can in fact aid the process of healing but is simply recommended to take. 

https://data.historicaltexts.jisc.ac.uk/view?pubId=eccoii-1378700900&terms=Panada%20food&collection=ecco&collection=eccoii&pageTerms=Panada%20food&pageId=eccoii-1378700900-10

 

 

Buchan, William, M.D. Domestic Medicine; or the Family Physician Published: Philadelphia

 

Another account released by Buchan, however, this time focusing more on household remedies that can be made. Panada was clearly referenced as one of the simple meals that can be made to help with common illnesses and was interesting to see how he repeats this throughout his work.

https://data.historicaltexts.jisc.ac.uk/view?pubId=eccoii-1487000500&terms=Panada%20food&collection=ecco&collection=eccoii&pageTerms=Panada%20food&pageId=eccoii-1487000500-10

 

 

Northcote, William The Diseases Incident to Armies With the Method of Cure – Philadelphia

 

Northcotes mention of panada differs from the rest. Althought it still refers to it in medical terms, his account reinforces the idea of how simple a dish it is if it is quick enough to be made in an army camp. However, overall not extremely relevant as it mentions panada in passing as opposed to explaining when to take or what to take it with and how it is beneficial. 

https://data.historicaltexts.jisc.ac.uk/view?pubId=eccoii-1455900100&terms=Panada%20food&collection=ecco&collection=eccoii&pageTerms=Panada%20food&pageId=eccoii-1455900100-10

 

 

W. Cadogan, Doctor of Physics, An Essay upon Nursing and the Management of Children from their Birth to Three Years of Age – Printed London,

 

This particular article referenced panada both as food for the infant and for the mother post pregnancy for a light meal. It was interesting to see that the information given was predominantly aimed to the upper classes due to the mention of ‘wet nurses’ and carers.

https://data.historicaltexts.jisc.ac.uk/view?pubId=eccoii-1529401700&terms=Panada%20food&collection=ecco&collection=eccoii&pageTerms=Panada%20food&pageId=eccoii-1529401700-10

 

William Combe’s poem Champagne, Sherry, and Water Gruel (1742)

 

 Combe’s poem gave an indication of what the general attitude towards medicine was. Reading the whole poem, the mention of the doctor giving a prescription of panada appears to be almost sarcastic in tone as if to suggest that someone who is very ill will not benefit from just being prescribed panada.

http://0-literature.proquest.com.pugwash.lib.warwick.ac.uk/searchFulltext.do?id=Z200318738&childSectionId=Z200318738&divLevel=2&queryId=2915911021399&trailId=152DA6CD164&area=poetry&forward=textsFT&queryType=findWork

 

David Garrick’s play The Male-Coquette (1757)

 

Garrick’s play on the other hand reaffirms the fact that panada was considered a household remedy. The fact that everyone knew of it highlights both how common but also how useful it was.

http://0-literature.proquest.com.pugwash.lib.warwick.ac.uk/searchFulltext.do?id=Z000081578&childSectionId=Z000081578&divLevel=0&queryId=2915911021538&trailId=152DA6CD164&area=drama&forward=textsFT&queryType=findWork

 

Thomas Morton’s A School for Grown Children

 

In a similar vein as the other literary texts, it highlighted similar attitudes towards panada which was useful in noting down. The literary texts were all useful as they pointed in a similar direction with the attitude that they had to panada.

http://0-literature.proquest.com.pugwash.lib.warwick.ac.uk/searchFulltext.do?id=Z000104299&childSectionId=Z000104299&divLevel=0&queryId=2915911021538&trailId=152DA6CD164&area=drama&forward=textsFT&queryType=findWork

 

Labourers wages in the Isle of Man

 

Finding out labourers wages was one of the more trickier parts of this research, however, this account proved to be extremely useful in giving a generalized view of how much a labourer would earn and how expensive bread would be in that location relative to the wages. Although it only takes in to account the Isle of Man, it was extremely useful to use it as a guiding point.

https://data.historicaltexts.jisc.ac.uk/view?pubId=eccoii-1333100200&terms=milk%20price&collection=ecco&collection=eccoii&pageTerms=milk%20price&pageId=eccoii-1333100200-150&illustrated=true

 

William Salmon The English Herbal: Or History of Plants

 

Salmon’s description of panada and what it consists of was extremely useful in narrowing down what kind of bread was used for panada. Although the dish itself is so versatile that any family could have used a different recipe, this article gave a a clearer indication of what it should consist of.

https://data.historicaltexts.jisc.ac.uk/view?pubId=eccoii-1318600202&terms=panada%20milk&collection=ecco&collection=eccoii&collection=bl&pageTerms=panada%20milk&pageId=eccoii-1318600202-5730&illustrated=true

 

Secondary sources

  

A detailed essay by Roger Koenker, Was Bread Giffen? The Demand for Food in England Circa 1790

 

A very insightful and informative essay on the demand and cost for food along with labourers wages, which was helpful in finding some of the original sources for the data and information. Also had some background information on the agricultural problems experienced that would have led to bad harvesting.

http://www.econ.uiuc.edu/~econ508/Papers/koenker77.pdf

  

 

Obladen M. Pap, gruel, and panada: Early approaches to artificial infant feeding.

 

Sadly the only information I could gain from this file was the ‘abstract’ information that was helpful in pointing out the key problems with feeding panada to infants, however, it was very difficult to access the whole essay and was unable to. However, the article did help me come across the next source.

http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/24577423

 

 

Ian G. Wickes Essay on the History of Infant Feeding Feb 5th, 1953

 

This particular essay was a very good source in explaining the history and the development of artificial feeding, which led to me exploring pap-boats and its relationship with panada more. Extensive amount of information on the social conditions and the negative effect this had on the infants health due to the lack of breast feeding.

http://adc.bmj.com/content/28/139/232.full.pdf

 

Images

 

(All of the images are also hyperlinked under each one) 

 

Figure 1: Front cover of Hannah Glasse, The Art of Cookery Made Plain and Easy, published in London 1747

 

Figure 2: Elizabeth Raffled in The Experienced English Housekeeper, 1769 

 

Figure 3:Elizabeth Raffled in The Experienced English Housekeeper, 1769

 

Figure 4:Annals of Agriculture, and Other Useful Arts. By Arthur Young, Vol. XXXIV published in London.

 

Figure 5:Annals of Agriculture, and Other Useful Arts. By Arthur Young, Vol. XXXIV published in London.

 

Figure 6: William Playfair's chart originally seen in his Letter On Our Agricultural Distresses, Their Causes and Remedies: Accompanied with Tables and Copper-Plate Charts - however the image is sourced from this website. 

 

Figure 7: John Hearfield's graph on the price of a quarter loaf

 

Figure 8: Article printed by Nichols and Son, Red Lion- Passage, Fleet- Street, London, September 26th 1800 

 

Figure 9: W. Cadogan, Doctor of Physics wrote An Essay upon Nursing and the Management of Children, from their Birth to Three Years of Age,

 

Figure 10: Image sourced from the Science Museum

 

Figure 11: Image sourced from the National Maritime Museum displaying James Cook's collections

 

Figure 12: Image sourced from the Science Museum

 

Figure 13: William Buchan's Domestic medicine; or the Family Physician - 1771, Philadelphia publication

 

figure 14: An Account of the Putrid Sore Throat by John Fothergill M.D. sixth edition, London

 

 

 

 

 

Comments (0)

You don't have permission to comment on this page.