Fireworks in Eighteenth Century Europe.

 

To Start with a Bang!

The OED defines a firework to be: “A pictorial or ornamental design formed by igniting devices filled with gunpowder and other combustible chemicals.”

 

The invention of Fireworks is often accredited to China in the 7^th century. They envisioned them to ward off evil spirits. This invention of the firework came as an extension to that of the ‘Four Great Inventions’ of China, which included the Compass, papermaking, printing and gunpowder. Ever since their invention, they have used across celebrations and festivities, including the Chinese New Year and Moon Festival.

With an interest in Chinese and East Asian design and artistic traditions, the ‘Chinoiserie’ movement consumed Europe in the late-17^th and 18^th Centuries.  With it, the design and use of fireworks became more and more attractive: “They make such fireworks that no one in Europe has ever seen” (Lev Izmailov, ambassador of Peter the Great).

 

According to Simon Werrett, “Fireworks were a significant element of the early-modern European life. In a world without electric light, fire was a powerful medium, a source of light and heat whose divine and magical connotations were strong. Prometheus, who stole fire from heaven, presided over the human arts, by which men engaged with the natural world and turned nature to human ends…. many communities displayed their authority by spectacular demonstrations of power over fire, in “artificial fireworks” that exploded around allegorical scenery.” (3). He continues on to suggest “the Catholic Church, princely courts, artillerymen, painters, architects, industrious entrepreneurs, and natural philosophers all sought out the credit such artifices could bring” (3). 

 

According to Michael Lynn, the eighteenth century classified fireworks into six groups:

 

1.   Military fireworks (rockets: "these were used during war where they could, for example, set fire to a besieged city or rival ship. Other type of military fireworks included Roman Candles and incendiary bombs"

2 .  Theatrical Fireworks (The English had used these since the 17th Century) 

3.   Aerial Fireworks 

4.   Ground Fireworks: "which included jets of fire, fixed stars, and turning fires usually entered on an architectural structure." 

5.   Water fireworks: “differed from ground fireworks only in that they were set off near water, creating a reflection that contributed to the aesthetic effect”

6.   Aeronautic fireworks which "appeared after the invention of ballooning in 1783. Quite simply, these were fireworks launched from the gondola of a balloon in flight, a dangerous proposition at a time when balloons were often made with paper and might be filled with highly flammable hydrogen gas".   

 

 

During this period, Fireworks held a multifaceted role in European society. They represented celebration, art, technology, social standing, indulgence and pleasure; and destruction. 

 

A bit of a damp squib? - The Royal Fireworks (with Music!) 1749 and other social occasions. 

 

 

Image 1.

A View of the fire-workes and illuminations at his Grace the Duke of Richmond, at Whitehall, and on the River Thames, Monday 15 May, 1749. 

 

To mark the end of the War of the Austrian Succession (1740-48), and the subsequent Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748), King George II commissioned the ‘Royal Fireworks’ on April 27^th, 1749. The war had lasted eight years evolving around a territorial dispute. With it, he instructed Handel to write an orchestral suite in accompaniment to his favoured festivity. Handel returned with the ‘Music for the Royal Firework’s’, a suite in five movements, to be played by a military band (without stringed instruments). To recognise the importance of the occasion, the 3^rd movement was entitled “La Paix” (The Peace), and the 4^th, “La Réjouissance” (The Rejoicing).

 

According to historians, a 400ft wooden pavilion was built in London’s Green Park, with the sole purpose of the event:

 

Tho’ the materials were only wood, and canvas white-wash’d and siz’d, it appeared in great elegance, like a temple of fine stone, with a balustrade on the top, except in the center [sic], where instead of a pediment, it went strait up in order to receive some pictures and the king’s arms, to the top of which it was 114 foot high, and being adorned with statues and other figures, festoons of flowers, and other lustres, gave great delight to the beholders, which were innumerable. From this temple, which was 144 feet in length, extended, by 5 arches of a side two low wings, north and south, at the end of each a pavilion, the whole length being 410 feet. The several prints published, not excepting that by authority, of this structure, did not agree with the appearance on the night of performance. (The Gentleman’s Magazine, vol. 19 (April, 1749), p. 186)

 

The site chosen was the ‘fashionable’ part of St. James’ Park; A short distance from Buckingham house, and visible from the Queen’s library. The area was given a military fence and guarded by musketeers. This prevented public entrance, leaving accessibility to nobility and politicians alone. Nor was this structure merely disposable. ‘The Green Park Machine’ as it became known, had been designed by imported technicians from France and Italy, namely The Chevalier Servandoni. 

 

The aerial display is said to have contained 10,000 rockets and 101 cannons.  According to sources though, the firework’s performance on the night did not go to plan, even Handel’s orchestral suite was neglected in coverage of the event. The Gentleman's Magazine gave full description of the events...in two versions. Description I gives a tale of how the event was supposed to occur, how it had been designed and successfully planned in Dress Rehearsals. Description II gives the reality:

 

At half an hour after eight, the works were begun by a single rocket from before the library, then the cannon within the chevaux de frize were fired; two rockets were afterwards discharg’d at the front camera of the inclosure, when 101 pieces of cannon placed on Constitution-hill, were discharged; after which a great number of rockets of different sorts, balloons, &c. were discharged, to surprising perfection. (Description, The Gentleman’s Magazine, p. 186)

 

About half an Hour after Nine, in discharging some of the works from the Pavilion at the Left Wing of the Building, it set Fire to the same, and burnt with great Fury, so that that, and two of the Arches, were burnt to the Ground; and had not the Carpenters made a Breach by casting away two Arches, and removing the Timber, and for the Assistance of some Fire-Engines which were in Readiness, in all Probability the whole Fabric would have been consumed. Messengers were going to and from his Majesty all the Time of this Misfortune; and when it was brought under, a Present was made to the most diligent in stopping the Flames.During the Fire, the grand Rockets and the Sun were discharged; but this Accident prevented the exhibiting some of the most considerable of the Fireworks.About Eleven the whole Building was illuminated, and continued so until between Two and Three o’Clock. His Majesty and the Royal Family withdrew about Twelve. (Description II, The Gentleman’s Magazine p. 8).

 

This event epitomes the use of fireworks as a celebration. Throughout the eighteenth century, they were used to celebrate the end of wars, the signing of Treaty, weddings, births, Royal successions. This particular event shows the grandeur afforded to these events. 

 

Naturally, these events did not always go to plan. For instance:

 

"On Sunday last His Majesty entertained the Prince of Tuscany at Versailles, first with a Collation in the Evening, after which the Prince took a view of the house and Gardens and especially the Grotto with its Rockworks and fountains, where he was diverted with Music and another Treat of Sweetmeats, Fruits, and excellent Wines; from thence he was entertained with a play at the theatre, and afterwards with a ball in the great Hall; which ending, and the company taking their seats, a curtain was suddenly drawn up at one end of the Room ,wherein appeared a glorious apartment well lit and in the midst of it a table whereon was erected a pyramid of excellent sweet meats, which by some hidden Engine conveyed the Table into the midst of the great room, and explored the Banquet to the company; from thence the Prince was invited into the Garden which was extraordinarily lighted, the fountains all running for some time, but then stopping….great quantities of fireworks which filled the air with Rockets, which had not to pleasant an issue as was desired; for the Guard of house being placed in a part of the Garden, their horses were to terrified with those sudden fires and noise, that falling into great disorder most of the riders were thrown to the ground, and one of them falling with his rider upon a young Lady, a daughter of Monsieur Colbert, so much bruised her that she was taken up as dead, and continues dangerously ill." (London Gazette).

 

 

 

A Spectacle in the Pleasure Gardens…!

 

There were three prominent Pleasure Gardens in London during this period; Marylebone Gardens, Ranelagh and Vauxhall Gardens. The Pleasure Gardens and their events were unrestricted by class, unlike specific events like 'The Royal Fireworks'.  If you could play the shilling entrance fee, you were welcome. Thousands of people would flock to the gardens every night. The popularity of the Gardens was such that Vauxhall Gardens appeared in Paris, Copenhagen and Nashville, Tennessee. There was often music, or performances of some kind, Hot Ballooning displays even (Air Balloon)...and Fireworks!. The music, once again so popular, that it was printed and distributed across Europe. Naturally, these events would encourage crime (as is explored below!) and ‘elicit activity’. Famously, Vauxhall had a dark alley where you would go for a romantic interlude, with a lover or one of the prostitutes who would wait for clients at these events. (For more on prostitution in the 18^th Century, have a look at Streetwalking) (Rule Brittania!)  

 

Burney's Evelina highlights how the Pleasure Gardens would have been used and appreciated during this time: “it was settled that we should spend the evening in Marybone Gardens, when M. Torre, a celebrated foreigner was to exhibit some fire-works…I was extremely glad when we were summoned to the orchestra, upon the opening of a concert…the fire-work was really beautiful; and told, with wonderful ingenuity, the story of Orpheus and Eurydice: but, at the moment of the fatal look which separated them for ever, there was such an explosion of fire, and so horrible a noise, that we all, as one of accord, jumpt hastily from the form, and ran away some paces, fearing that we were in danger of mischief, from the innumerable sparks of fire which glittered in the air.” (Letter LII.)

 

"Marylebone Gardens was known to contemporaries as the French Gardens on account  of its association with French refugees since the revocation of the Edict of Nantes." (Worrall, 150) It would have been a welcome enviroment for an interesting figure in the Firework Spectacles at the Pleasure Gardens, Giovanni Battista Torre. He was a printer and a pyrotechnicist. For several years, he directed firework displays at Marylebone (147). He was a member of the very tight knit community of artists in London at this time, where art and theatre were one and the same. Fireworks became features of dramatic productions. For instance, in August 1722 James Hook featured fireworks as part of ‘Mr Hook’s Annual Festival’(150). “Fireworks were a significant aspect of contemporary theatricals, implying the presence of a range of skilled pyrotechnicists both to make the fireworks and to arrange and supervise their display. By 1770, Ranelagh Gardens were heavily advertising their production of Isaac Bickerstagge’s The Recruiting Serjeant with featured ‘150 cases of brilliant Fountains, Roman Candles, Chinese Jerbs, Pots, d’Brians [and] Maroons’. In the heavily overlapping types of concurrent dramatic activity and personnel in this era, the republican Edward Thompson’s Shadwell adaptation, The Fair Quaker, at Drury Lane in November 1773 similarly displayed ‘£3.5s’ of Fireworks”  (153). 

 

“It is known that ... Torré, directly influenced theatrical effects in Garrick's theatre by introducing a pyrotechnic ‘licopodium’ torch which simulated the flashing of lightning...As well as his ‘licopodium’ torch, Torre rejuvenated the Marylebone Gardens presentation of firework displays by including daring theatricalized entertainments on an ambitious scale. The most famous of these was Torre’s scene of The Forge of Vulcan, [June 1774]…Strutt wrote [in The Sports and Pastimes of the People of England (1801)] of how Torre ‘introduced pantomimical spectacles, which afforded him an opportunity of bringing forward much splendid machinery, with appropriate scenery and stage decoration, whereby he gave an astonishing effect to his performances’. What is particularly noticeable is that these pyrotechnic shows included the use of human actors moving 9 presumably quite dangerously between screens…[This] gives some idea of how fluid were the divisions between theatrical dramas…and the settings of music and fireworks offered at Marylebone Gardens.” (Worrall, 158-9)

 

The above gives us an idea of what it would have been like to attend one of these events. The Fireworks, with the aid of music, stage and numerous stage hands, would tell a story. These gardens would invited each and every social class in London to participate in it, to be seen at it most importantly; to be seen was to be known much like today. The Gardens became a hub for London's artists, giving them a stage to experiment with new works and technologies with each performance encouraging a number of disciplines. 

 

As mentioned in the 'Royal Fireworks' section, structures were often built for the events. The seating structure above is an example of a temporary addition. The images below, however, depict more permanent structures built for the purpose of Firework displays. Image 2 & 3 show a 'theatre' in The Hague built for the fireworks for the Peace of Aachen in 1749. Image 4 shows how such a structure would have been used. A fireworks display very much would have been a show, a spectacle and piece of theatre and art - A story. 

 

Image 2.

 

The detail below dictates 'illumination' events to have taken place on June 11th and June 13th , 1749, in honour of the Peace of Aachen, 1748.

 

Image 3.

 

This image from the same occasion shows to figures (cherubs?!) lighting wicks in the bottom corners, hinting at the structures purpose. 

 

Image 4. 

 

Pleasure Gardens, such as Vauxhall, had the benefit of being close to the River Thames. Therefore, they had the possibility of displaying fireworks in a water display. The image below depicts such a display on the Thames in 1713. As the drawing shows, spectators would also view the spectacle from boats on the river. This is most likely to be members of the Gentry. Part of the 'Vauxhall experience' for the upper class was crossing the Thames. They would have, for the majority, lived north of the Thames, the City (Westminster). In relation to the events at Vauxhall Gardens, David Coke, in the BBC documentary 'Rule Brittania', describes this journey, by boat, as a part of the integrity of the Pleasure Gardens. It was about 'separating you from reality', a dream world, as if 'they were crossing the river Styx to get to paradise'. These events were essential if you wanted to be in the public eye. The dining, the music and the spectacles were open to all - it was a democracy led by art and music. These Gardens were led by the base desires of pleasure, ego and indulgence.  

 

 

 

Image 5. 

 

 

That’s Bang out of order! Fireworks and Crime

 

 

If any person shall make or sell any fireworks, or implements for making the same, he shall, on conviction before one justice, or chief magistrate, by confession, or by oath of two witnesses, forfeit 5L (?) to the poor, and half to the prosecutor, to be levied by distress, by warrant of such justice or chief magistrate.---And if any person shall permit any the same to be cast or fired, from his house or other place thereto belonging, into any public street or road, or any other place, he shall forfeit 20s, in like manner.---And if any person shall cast of fire the same into any public street, house, he shall forfeit 20s. in like manner, or be committed to the house of correction to be kept to hard labour for any time not exceeding one month, unless he shall sooner pay the forfeiture---But nothing herein shall extend to the office of the ordnance, or to the artillery company.” (Glasse)

 

 “the penalty and punishment of the 9^th and 10^th of William the 3^rd, made to prevent throwing squibs, serpents, and other fireworks: for every offense Five Pounds, and any person permitting them to be thrown out of their houses, or aiding and assisting therein, Twenty Shillings; and For want of goods or chattles, to pay the penalty, to be committed to the house of correction for a month”. (t17601204-12).

 

This decree indicates Fireworks to be a controlled commodity. Where they were used in many public events (legally I might add!), the amateur use creation and selling of Fireworks was a convictable action. Perhaps this suggests that the system worked similarly to that of today's; permits or licenses would have been required to do such things. Considering the use of 'Fireworks' and, more importantly, their explosive content in military action during this period (section below), perhaps this is unsurprising. For those caught and convicted of such action, 20 Shillings, a significant amount, would have been forfeited. The Old Bailiey records highlight a number of things in relation to this. For instance, we can infer that the fireworks were of great local importance through these records. A number of court accounts have the fireworks used as reference points:

 

In defence of character (t17530502-34): “I have known John Hanson several years, and have trusted him to take money for me no longer since than when the fireworks were in the park. He never wrong’d me.”

 

 (OA17500706:) ‘The Day of Fireworks (in Honour of the late glorious peace)’ 1750, a servant woman, taking leave for the day to enjoy the holiday with friends, met a band of miscreants that day which would later lead to her demise. “She together with three or four sailors, and some Women, spent that Day in Rioting and Drunkenness”. The account references her job to be on Marylebone Street, perhaps suggesting that these fireworks were held in the Marylebone Pleasure Gardens.

 

Naturally, these large public events would invite crime such as pickpocketing:

(t18140914-137) As Evidence:  “[the pickpockets] went into the green park at the time the firworks were going off. I saw them [attempting to pick pockets] there…When they were picking pockets it was impossible for me to get hold of them, the crowd was so great.”

 

A theft incident in 1834 (t18340220-107), shows two things; that fireworks held value in the ‘black market’ (“we missed five dozen of them”), and that Firework trade was considered prohibited (“I travel with a waggon, and keep fairs, and sell all kinds of trinkets - I do not deal in fireworks, but I have had some by me for two years”). On 3^rd April 1837, a man was brought to court for the charge of “selling fireworks” (t18370403-1157). John Gibbons, a shop owner, declares definitively in his defence, “no such person paid 3d. for fireworks, for squibs, or crackers – there was no transaction of that kind…I have no fireworks in my possession”. 

 

In 1846: in the Case of James Terry. (t18461026-2149) His master, Thomas Robson, a chemist, accused him of stealing. As part of the inquiry, it states that an element of Robson’s business was the manufacturing of fireworks.

 

A punishment summary for 8^th December 1697 (s16971208-1) states “George Hodges was fined 13s. 4d. for marking and selling of Squibs”.

 

In 1748 (t17841020-1) , a case records a Jewish festival in October, getting out of hand. During the celebrations there is record of angry mob using ‘squibs’ and bonfires to intimidate a local, Mr. Ridout, at his home. In retaliation, Ridout fired a gun into the crowd killing a 13 year-old boy.

 

Naturally, there is always a danger surrounding the use of explosives - one Old Bailey case details the manslaughter of a young boy, caused by the throwing of a ‘serpent’ (or ‘squib’ a type of firework) at the boy’s chest, which in turn caused an accident involving an iron hook. It documents the event to have occurred at a “bonfire just by Pelican-stairs” in 1760.

 

These cases highlight the use of fireworks in local celebrations; events which aggravated bring about crime and misfortune, however they build a picture of how fireworks would have been used and viewed in the contemporary period. They also record the celebrations of November 5^th during this time, to include the expected bonfire and fireworks in the events.

 

 

It doesn’t take a Rocket Scientist! - The Making of Fireworks

 

 Image 6.                                                      Image 7.

 

 

Welcome to the ‘School of Artificial Fireworks’. In 1687, John White detailed the process of making fireworks.

 

 

 

 It suggests:

1. 1.     Finding a piece of dry, tough wood; Box, Holly, Walnut-tree, Crab tree, without ‘Shakes or Knots’.
2. 2.     “I would have the Hole of a Mould bored but an Inch diameter, or wide, then the length of the Mould must be six times so long as the Hole is wide (which is six inches) and on each side of the Hole half an Inch thick: so that when the Mould is turned round, it is two inches over in breath. When you have done this, you must have a bottom made and it is to be fitted therein.”

 

 

‘The order and making of Rowlers, Rammers, and other things for the Coffins’.

 

• ·      “having provided your mould, then you are to fit your Rowler, which must be two thrd parts of the breadth of the bore of the mould, and the lenth thereof six inches longer than the mould, which is for rowling of your paper, with a hole to be bored in the bottom to receive a Wyre, which must be falten’d in another piece of Wood some-what shorter, to take out at your pleasure...when you have fitted your rocker, then proceed to the making of your rammers, which must always be two at the least...having fitted your rammers, provide a piece of Box, which must serve to make your whole Coffins, to put the work which you intend, on the Head of your rockets.”

 

‘How to order and make the coffins of paper’

 

• ·      Take some good, strong paper. ‘let it always be the length of your mould’.

 

• ·      “take your rowler, and one length of paper, and begin to rowl; when you have rowled one sheet; you must have a board with a handle, to roul it with...you must hold the Rowler in your left Hand, and with your right hand hold the board by the Handle, and then lay down your Rowler upon some smooth..table...draw forth the rowler about aninch, and then take the other short rowler, and put it in, and there you shall have a place left for the choaking of the rocket”.

 

 

‘the order and manner how you shall choak a rocket’

 

• ·      “when you are to choak a rocket, you must have an iron hook, or a staple driven into some Post, to which you must fasten your cord...you must tie one end of the cord to the hook...and at the other end, about a yard off, tie a strong stick, in fashion of a swing (it must be strong, because it beareth the weight of the body), put the stick between your legs, and wind the cord about the rocket-case in the place appointed, which must be between the long Rowler and the short; when that is done, girt it by degrees, ever turning the rowler, to the End it may come together more close and neat; and when you have sufficiently choaked it, draw forth your short Rowler, and where the choaking is, tie it about with strong pack-thread and then draw forth the rowler, your doffin is ready to be filled when occasion severth”.

 

• ·      ‘the manner of driving a rocket, with the instruments belonging thereunto’

 

• ·      “Your coffin of paper being finished, take it, and with your hollow Rammer, force the same down close into the mould, and when ou have done, strike two or three hard blows to settle the paper into its right form: which being done, then you must fill the coffin, in doing whereof you must have a care, providing a measure which may contain twentieth part of your whole rocket; so by that means you shall not fail, but every rocket shall have a true proportion alike: as for example: I have a coffin, which being filled, will hold an once of mixture, or thereabout: then I take the twentieth prat, and when I find what quanitity it is, I make a measure of Horn or Latten which shall contain so much, and then I begin to fill my coffin with one measure at a time, and putting in my Rammer, I strike four or five smart Blows with a good heavy mallet, and then fill another measure, and strike again, so I continue till I come to the top of the Needle; then I take the said Rammer, and so continue with it, till I come to the Top of the Mould: Now the paper which is above the top of the mould, must be turned down and beaten hard: which being done, the rocket is finished from the mould, which being forced out with as much ease as you can, for the less you force it, (being filled, and the Needle taken out,) the better it is, for knocking loosens the Powder, and so causes the rocket for to fail. You should have a funnel to fill your small rockets.”

 

‘of the composition and receipts for your rockets’

 

“therefore we shall here deliver Rules and Directions, which may serve for the true composition, or matter wherewith you may charge any rocket; from Rockets which are charged but with one Ounce of Power, unto greater, which require for their charge Ten Pound of powder: and here follows the ingredients for several rockets… First, for Rockets of One Once: Unto each Pound of good Musket Power beaten, put two ounces of small-coal-dust. For rockets of two or three ounces: Unto every four ouces and a half of powder-dust, add an ounce of salt-petre-or to every four ounces of Powder-dust, add an ounce of coal-dust”.

 

In 1780, a Dutch manuscript (https://archive.org/details/beschrijvingvank00hall), entirely hand-written and illustrated, depicts a similar process. The illustrations show  a variety of types of fireworks ranging from the traditional Roman Candles, to Catherine Wheels. Unfortunately, without speaking Dutch, I cannot translate the books however the watercolour illustrations suggest specific ratios for specific fireworks; in the tables beneath the pictures.

 

 

 

An interesting figure in the development of fireworks during this century was Philip James de Loutherbourg (1740-1812), a well-recognised Franco-British painter of the time, notable for his large naval works. However, instead of his artistic skill, it was his relationship with a printer, named Giovanni Battista Torre (previously mentioned above), which has significance for our topic. Together, they revitalized the Colour Firework. 

 

John ‘Peter Pindar’ Walcot wrote a satirical poem concerning de Loutherbourg and his other contemporaries: ‘One More Peep at the Royal Academy; or Odes to Academicians’. It discussed the ‘metallic colouring of his paint formulas’: “The poet…endeavoureth to beat him out of his Belief in the Metallicity of general Nature”, according to John Gage records de Loutherbourg’s use of colour as ‘ground-breaking’. (Worrall, 151).

European Magazine noted de Loutherbourg’s interest in both the ‘chemistry’ of colour and their physical propterties, which “tended to lead him to use pigment combinations with too much ‘Metalleity’, as Walcot had put it, find its most exact correlation with the work of firework makers of the eighteenth century who combined pyrotechnics with dramatic displays at places such as Marylebone Gardens” (152)

 

Where they did not invent the colour Firework, they were, however, part of the movement of pyrotechnicicsts who were concerned with the technical endeavour. They were among the ones to use the revolutionary ingredient, Potassium Chlorate, in their mixes which change firework-making in the early 19th Century. Lieutenant Robert Jones Artificial Fire-works, Improved to the Modern Practice (1766) : The contemporary firework makers were using basic gunpowder with organic compounds adding a dash of colour. “To create tinges of colour, the firework makers added such things as ‘meal powder’, camphor, Greek Pitch, antimony, amber and rosin. Both de Loutherbourg and Torre were well-versed in these concepts of alchemy, which Worrall attributes to their Freemason connections.

 

 

Gunpowder, Treason and Plot. Fireworks in Warfare. 

 

As previously shown, Fireworks were often used to celebrate military victory. However, that was not their only use in war. Their explosive nature was not purely an artform in the 18th century. They followed the example the Chinese, who reportedly used gunpowder in these ways leading back to 6th/7th Century. 

 

The OED references the use of fireworks in warfare as early as 1562. (P.Whitehorne Certain Waies Orderyng Souldiers f.1 in tr. Machiavelli Arte of Warre. How to make Saltpeter, Gunpoulder, and diuers sortes of Fireworkes or wilde Fyre). 

 

 

Fireworks were not used purely for pleasure in the 18^th Century. There were also used warfare, as indicated by Francis Malthus’ ‘A Treatise of Artificial Fire-vvorks’ in 1629. For the full text visit https://data.historicaltexts.jisc.ac.uk/view?pubId=eebo-99845426e&terms=fireworks&pageTerms=fireworks&pageId=eebo-99845426e-10323-49). The image. above,shows fireworks being set of in the background, cannons at the base, and the Gods Zeus and Athena, goddess of war, in the foreground; they appear to be planning.

 

Malthus begins describing ‘mortar shells’ (morter-peece) – a shell, casing the explosive gunpowder within, that gets fired into the air.

He indicates the materials to differ slightly from those mentioned in White’s descriptions for recreational fireworks. Malthus suggests Red Copper/Brass as the casing.

 

 

 

‘How to make fiery arrows’:  ‘a long shaft of wood, and joinged to it an iron head…ingredients of satl-petre, gunpowder-dust, brimstone’. 

 

Malthus' fireworks for war varying from the traditional shell-case projectiles to the fire-lit arrows. From the information the manuscript divulges, the use of fireworks in the Disney's 'Mulan' would not be far off from how they were used in Europe in the 18th Century. (For fun: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RFbybmBbcIU). Malthus divulges how one would go about using these explosives to set towns alight (33) - detailing the strategic placement of barrels of gunpowder in hollow earth, to be covered in earth and strong wooden planks. To be lit from a distance at the discretion of 'The Engineir'.

 

 

A stand out chapter entitled 'How to make a Shippe of wilde fire' - using the enemy ships on canons against them. 

Apparently one would need to:

• have a supply of broken canons well charged with bullets
• have a good supply of dry wood to place between the canons
• this shall blow the deck upward when lit and at the same time light the explosive of grenades and gunpowder barrels stored on deck. 

(For more on Gunpowder transportation, take a look at Horns).  

 

 

The paragraph below is taken from Robinson Crusoe. Crusoe mocks the natives for their use of gunpowder and fireworks in conflict in comparison to the superior knowledge and technology of the Europeans: 

 "They have gunpowder and guns; whether they have learned to make them by direction of Europeans, which is not likely, or that they found it out by mere strength of invention, as some would advance, though without certainty, in their favour; be it which it will, as I say, it matters little; their powder is of no strength for the needful operations of sieges, mines, batteries, no, nor for shooting of birds, as ours is, without great quantities put together; their guns are rather an ostentation than for execution, - clumsy, heavy, and ill-made; neither have they arrived to any tolerable degree of knowledge in the art of gunnery and engineering; they have no bombs, carcasses, hand-grenades; their artificial fireworks are in no degree comparable, or to be named with ours; nor have they arrived to any thing in the military skill, in marshalling armies, handling arms, discipline, and the exercise in the field, as the Europeans have; all which is depending on the improvement of fire-arms, &c. in which, if they have had a use of gunpowder so many ages, as some dream, they must be unaccountable blockheads, that they have made no farther improvement; and if it is but lately, they are yet apparently dull enough in the managing of it, at least compared to what ought to be expected of an ingenious people, such as our people cry them up to be." (Defoe, Vol.3 'Serious Reflection')  

 

 

 

References

 

Primary

 

Burney, Fanny. Evelina, or The History of a Young Lady's Entrance Into the World. 1778. KINDLE. 

 

DeFoe, Daniel. The Life and Adventures of Robinson Crusoe. Logographic Press. London. 1790. HISTORICAL TEXTS T073015. 

 

Glasse, Samuel (magistrate). R.Raikes, H. Gardner. London. 1784, Gloucester. HISTORICAL TEXTS Ref: T098886

 

Old Bailey Proceedings Online:

 

6^th July 1750, Ordinary’s Account (OA17500706).

2^nd May 1753, trial of James & John Hanson.( t17530502-34)

4^th December 1760, Trial of Richard Roundson. (t17601204-12)

20^th October 1784. Trial of Porter Ridout. (t17841020-1)

Old Bailey Proceedings Online, 14^th September 1814, Trial of John Keith and James Eves. (t18140914-137)

20^th February 1834, Trial of John Pavey. (t18340220-107)

3^rd April 1837, Trial of William Wilson. (t18370403-1157)

26^th October 1846. Trial of James Terry. (t18461026-2149)

8^th December 1697. Proceedings Punishment Summary. (s16971208-1)

 

London Gazette (London, England), August 9, 1669-August 12 1669. Issue 390. 17^th-18^th Century Burney Collection Newspapers. 

 

Malthus, Francis. A treatise of artificial fire-vvorks both for vvares and recreation’. W. Jones for Richard Hawkins. 1629. London. HISTORICAL TEXTS Ref: 17217 (STC 2^nd Ed)

 

The Gentleman's Magazine

= Hogwood, Christopher. 'Introduction to facsimile edition of Handel's Music for the Royal Fireworks.' Available at: www.hogwood.org/archive/composers/handel/introduction-to-facsimile-edition-of-handels-music-for-the-royal-fireworks.html[Accessed 13 March 2017]

 

White, John. The Art of Ringing. ‘The School of Artificial Fireworks’. G. Conyers, at the Ring in Little-Britain. 1687 (?). London. HISTORICAL TEXTS Ref: W1786 2^nd Edition. 

 

 

Secondary

 

"firework, n." OED online. Oxford University Press, December 2016. Web. 12 March 2017.

 

Kelly, Jack (2004). Gunpowder: Alchemy, Bombards, and Pyrotechnics: The History of the Explosive that Changed the World. New York: Basic Books, Perseus Books Group, page 2.

 

Hogwood, Christopher. 'Introduction to facsimile edition of Handel's Music for the Royal Fireworks.' Available at: www.hogwood.org/archive/composers/handel/introduction-to-facsimile-edition-of-handels-music-for-the-royal-fireworks.html [Accessed 13 March 2017]

 

Rule Britannia! Music, Mischief and Morals in the 18^th Century, 02:00 08/09/2016, BBC4, 60 mins, https://learningonscreen.ac.uk/ondemand/index.php/prog/06DFC640 (Accessed 12 Mar 2017).  

 

Werrett, Simon (2010). Fireworks: Pyrotechnic arts and sciences in European history. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. p. 181. ISBN978-0-226-89377-8.

 

Worrall, David. Theatric Revolution: Drama, Censorship and Romantic Period subcultures 1773-1832. Oxford University Press. 2006. E-book.

 

Images

1. 'A View of the fireworks and illumination at his Face the Duke of Richmond, at Whitehall, and on the River Thames, Monday 15 May, 1749'. 

2. Theaterin The Hague for the fireworks for the Peace of Aachen, 1749. Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam. ARSTOR.

3. Theaterin the Den Haag voor het het vuurwerk voor de Vrede van Aken, 1749, Print. ca. 1525-1594, Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam. ARTSTOR. 

4. Marot, Daniel. 'Fireworks at the Celebration of the Peace of Utrecht, 14th June 1713) Print. 1702-3. Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam. ARTSTOR. 

5. Fireworks on the Thames. 1713. Drawing. Victoria and Albert Museum, London. ARTSTOR. 

6. Corenlius Dusart. Woman making Fireworks. La Femme artificer. 'The Public Celebration on the Capture of Namur by William III, 1695. ARTSTOR.

7. Corenlius Dusart. A Fireworks Maker (L'artificier) ' The Public Celebration on the Capture of Namur by William III, 1695. ARTSTOR.