Work Horse

 

"Without the horse, the industrial revolution at the end of the eighteenth century could

never have taken place." 

(Clutton-Brock, 52)

 

'The Hay Cart'. Francis Wheatley. 1779.

 

Definition:

'Work Horse' or Warke Horse as defined by the 'Oxford English Dictionary': 

 "1. A horse used for draught, ploughing, farm work, etc., rather than for riding or racing."

Origin: Formed within English, by compounding. Etymons: work n., horse n.

Other terms used for 'Work Horse' include 'Farm Horse', 'Draught Horse' and 'Cart Horse'.

 

Introduction:

 

Before exploring in detail the specific importance of the agricultural work horse, it is important to recognise that horses, as a species, have always been prevalent in British society; from the city to the countryside, horses have been employed by humans as a means of labour. Early modern England has been noted by many as being very largely a “horse-drawn society” (Edwards, 1). Horses were relied upon more so than mules and other similar livestock all throughout the course of the 16^th and 17^th centuries, reaching a peak of importance in the 1800s and 1900s. This rise of popularity is accountable due to the fact that between the 1700s and the 1800s, Tudor and Stuart monarchs “took the lead in improving the quality of the stock” (Edwards, 8) by importing Barbs, Turkomans, Neapolitans and other foreign horses. These imported animals were then cross-breed with the native stock. Likewise, “[t]he landed classes emulated the Crown; they imported foreign horses and used them for breeding purposes.” (Edwards, 13) Horses in England then became valued as symbols of supremacy and authority, and such mastery of these imposing animals justified and reflected the power and influence of their owners. Therefore, through a sense of mastery and ownership, the aristocracy were able to advance in their attempts at self-promotion. However, the aristocracy were not the only class to have utilised the strength and stature of the horse. While horses can be seen to be of great use for the pleasures of the upper-classes, either through being ridden directly on horse-back or pulled in a cart, these animals were also used for rural purposes, military purposes and sport (such as Fox Hunting).

 

In this way the versatility of the animal amongst English life can be seen. The animal transcends the class system by its necessity in all aspects of English life; horses were important figures for Kings and yet also for rural harvesters. Scriptures, portraits and paintings of horses show them as befitting for any environment, and thus their importance in English society is emphasised and the notion of ‘horsepower’ consolidated. What then must be considered is how these great animals succeeded in their various purposes, and also how they impacted and adapted society from (aristocratic) fashion to (rural) industry. Different breeds of horses had different purposes in their respective societies. For example cart-horses were often huge, powerful Shires that reached a typical height of 17.2hh, where as racing horses were often Thoroughbreds reaching a smaller height of 16hh on average, making them most effective for the sport in their agility and speed. Therefore, whilst many pets are often bred for the purpose of aesthetics, horses were bred for efficiency. Horses were not kept as domesticated pets, but were bred, bought and sold as working animals. As a result many non-fiction publications surrounding the upkeep of these animals were published, and the understanding of them enhanced throughout the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. 

 

The 'work horse' was a term used to describe the breeds of draught horses that were employed to work on the land alongside the peasantry and working classes, yet were often owned and cared for by the landed gentry. Work horses or draught horse were imperative in making farms functional; it was due to horse power that carts were pulled, machines were powered and profit was made. The work horse was thus such an important part within the agricultural industry that any exploration on agricultural labour, produce and revolution, must be made in conjunction with the topic of the horse.

 

 Term Frequency Graph for 'Work Horse' between 1600-1900:

 

Fig. 1

 

The graph (Fig. 1) highlights how the frequency of the term 'Work Horse' has changed around and during the eighteenth century. It demonstrates how the subject of work horses spiked in the early 1700s and, following a dramatic rise and fall, reached its zenith in the early nineteenth century. The topic of the working horse reached a climax at the end of the eighteenth century before coming out of circulation until the early 1850s, where its popularity as a topic rebuilds and surpasses the 1800s climax. 

 

A suggested reason for this outcome of data: 

“By the middle of the nineteenth century farm labour was becoming scarce…” (Long, 22). This quote from ‘The Development of Mechanization in English Farming’, suggests that the reason there was such a dramatic rise and decline on the topic of work horses towards the end of the eighteenth century is due to the fact that the 1800’s was the ultimate the century for horse powered labour in the agricultural scene. However, by the end of the eighteenth century and the beginning of the nineteenth century, industrial powered and mechanised machines began to take over the roles of work horses and thus their popularity as a topic decreased as they were not needed by society. It is not until the arrival of railways and steam machines in the 19th century that the need for work horses as a means of transport over short and medium distances was renewed, and thus their popularity as a discussed topic was accordingly renewed (as is shown by Fig.1).

 

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Scientific Understanding of the Work Horse

 

This is similar to the biological understanding of the entire horse species (Equus Caballus) as, although horses functioned differently in society in terms of their different breeds, the biological understanding of horses during the era was collaborate.

 

A general understanding of the species:

Whilst a complete scientific understanding of horses was not yet reached in the eighteenth century, there were general diagrams in circulation that showed the physical attributes of the species which could be used to describe any ailments and injuries to a horse.

 

Here is a completed and annotated diagram of a horse as known to eighteenth century society:

Fig. 2a

 

During the eighteenth century the anatomy of the horse was being explored, and an understanding of its musculoskeletal image was being developed through physical study and replicated portraits. George Stubbs, a painter best known for his paintings of horses, is an example of a person who was enhancing the century's understandings of the animals biological make-up (see Fig. 2b).

 

Fig. 2b

Three plates from 'The Anatomy of the Horse', George Stubbs, 1766.

 

These plates include a particular description of the bones, cartilages, muscles, fascias, ligaments, nerves, arteries, veins, and glands of a horse. The first plate (bottom right) highlights the skeleton of a horse, the second plate (bottom left) adds the muscles that surround the skeleton, and the third plate (top) is completed with a more recognisable physical image of a horse including muscle, tissue, veins and skin.

The plates are "memorable for their lifelike qualities, noble eloquence, and anatomical accuracy, the treatise was hailed as a groundbreaking work of artistic and scientific merit" (Santoleri, n.p.).

 

A horses biology was also expressed through written records as well as diagrams (See Fig. 3a and Fig. 3b).

 

In 'The Gentleman's Pocket-Farrier', author William Burdon highlights how the average person could check the age of a horse by examining their teeth (see Fig. 3a).

                      

                       Fig. 3a                                                                                Fig. 3b

 

"Every treatise on farriery has instructed us to know a horse's age by the mark in his mouth..." (Burdon, 6)

E.g. If a horse is two years old his two middle teeth will be shed; however if these two middle teeth are hollow then the horse is in fact more likely 3 years old.

 

Using the skeletal structure of teeth to figure out the age of a horse highlights the era's ability to apply science to reason. This development of scientific understanding, discovery and experimentation can be used as a means of evidencing the great intellectual impacts the Scientific Revolution of the Renaissance period had on eighteenth-century biology. In terms of its social context, the Scientific Revolution transformed “the study of nature into normal science”, in which it “may be understood in terms of the passage from feudalism to capitalism” (Teich, 9). This revolution "can be dated from the early 1600s through to about the end of the eighteenth century, and, as the ideas of scientific method were carried into the social and political sphere, the effect became known as the “enlightenment"" (Carlisle, 149). Therefore, due to this scientific movement, a greater knowledge and understanding of a horse's biology, anatomy and ecology can be seen to have occurred.

 

Farrier, or horse doctor

 

Farriers were "trusted, skilful medical practitioners" (MacKay, 115) who were responsible for the veterinary care of horses. They were so named 'farriers' in 1796 by the British Army's Board of General Officers "to distinguish animal specialists from human surgeons" (Morris, n.p.). Their work however was not limited to medical examinations but also consisted of "practices ranging from making shoes for horses to performing surgery and giving physic" (MacKay, 115). As a result farriers had ambiguous reputations in the eighteenth century in comparison to contemporary (21st century) equine care, in which veterinarians and farriers are separated by their professions; the latter focuses on the shoeing of the horse and the former on its medical/biological condition. 

 

Farriers were an imperative part and cost of maintaining a horse, in particular a horse that is meant for work. If a horse had an illness and could not work then it would negatively impact the profit that a farmer would make as a result. Consequently, farriers were integral to the upkeep of a horses health and its ability to work, and thus farriery became a job seemingly secure and always in demand. This also meant an added cost to owning a horse which amounted to around 5 to 6 shillings a year ('Annals of Agriculture - Volume XXVIII', 413). Research shows that farriers made up to "20 pounds with board each year" (MacKay, 124). The notion of farriery as a biological practice highlights how society in the eighteenth century was aware that horses, and other working class cattle, were not 'machines' capable of endless work but were living organisms liable to injuries and illnesses. It was the working class of farriers who were then relied upon to maintain the productivity of these animals, in terms of their health, which would ultimately ensure the financial stability of the agricultural estate from which the horse belongs. 

 

From a modern perspective, much of what we know about horses and their biology comes from farriery in the latter part of the eighteenth century with the founding of the London Veterinary College in 1792. In this period, horses and their biologies were beginning to be taken more seriously and explored in much greater intellectual depth; as can be seen by Edward Coleman's 'Observations on the Structure, Oeconomy and Diseases of the Horse':

Fig. 3c

 

Therefore, when considering the century's biological understanding of horses it is important to recognise that these were founded on the tests and research of farriers. Additionally, any anatomical images or anatomy books must be noted as the works of researchers experimenting with the medical practice of farriery.

 

A painting of a farriers shop:

Fig. 3d 

'A Farrier's Shop'. George Morland. 1793.

 

The horse in the oil painting (Fig. 3d) has been brought to the local village, as is implied by the sign in the top right hand corner of the painting that connotes a pub or town house dwelling, a common feature of village settlements. The muscular shoulders of the horse along with its thick legs, large pasterns, and unkept appearance indicates that this is a farm horse, making the painting a good example of a horse's position within a farrier's shop. The picture also demonstrates how farriery was a trade business that was situated in towns and villages as an accessible business practice. 

 

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Breeds

 

Horses were understood as a species but were given social functions as a result of their breed. The working horse was given the breed name 'draught-horse'; interestingly the 'Online English Dictionary' refers to horses of this breed as "beast(s) of draught" (i.e. "a horse... used for drawing a cart, plough, etc."). 

 

Breeds that were crossed with domestic mares to improve the quality of farming include Hanoverians, Oldenburgs and Trakehners. What these breeds have in common is their stocky, muscular and powerful biological structures and athletic personalities; features that make them effective for hard labour and agriculture work. 

 

The following extract highlights how different breeds had different purposes as a result of their physicality; this is a notion again to the fact horses were bred for a purpose (they were working class animals and not domestic pets):

Fig. 4a

 

The text defines “a draught-horse” as having “…thick shoulders and a broad chest laden with flesh… [therefore] is fitter for a collar than a saddle”. From this description it is clear why these breeds were used for hard labour in the agriculture industry in comparison to say “a saddle-horse”. This breed is defined as having “… thin shoulders… flat chest… a light forehand… [and being] nimble-footed…”. Due to the nimbler ‘design’ of this horse it is most suited for riding and not for hard labour work. This horse thus becomes bred for saddled work and has an entirely different purpose to a draught-horse.

 

Paintings of comparison:

             Fig. 4b                                                                                  Fig. 4c

             'Life-Sized Horse with Huntsman Blowing a Horn'.                'An Old Horse'. 

              John Wootton. 1732.                                                            Thomas Gainsborough. 1755. 

 

Figures 4b and 4c seen together compare a hunting thoroughbred horse with an aged cart horse wearing harness equipment. The signs of hard labour are evident on the cart-horse with its wasted back muscles revealing the curvature of the spine and the shading around the flanks revealing the ribs. The hunter in comparison appears well kept and looked after with a clean, shiny and dark coloured coat, trimmed mane and tail and slim but well defined hinds, quarters and shoulders. The hunter's hooves also appear matt in texture, highlighting the fact they are possibly oiled to maintain a clean appearance. The hunter can also be characterised as having long thin legs, as opposed to the cart horses thick, stout legs that are supported by wider pasterns. The hunter also has a high head carriage in comparison to the cart horse whose head is rested on a tree branch (a physical representation of its exhaustion perhaps). The high head carriage of the hunter can be seen as a consequence of the hunter's long and thin neck, which was considered important as horse's needed to be light in weight in order to be nimble in their movements. The cart horse on the other hand has broad shoulders and hindquarters as well as a thick neck in order to fit and work with a harness (the horse shown in Fig 4c is also wearing a typical harness). It is also interesting then to note how both horses are wearing 'symbols' of their professions; the hunter is wearing a saddle for riding, where as the cart horse is wearing a harness, for ploughing and field work. Over all, the picture concludes that the cart-horse is a lot stockier and rugged in appearance than the elegant and tall hunter, and this is a result of their bred purposes. The cart horse is kept in the rural sphere, where as the hunter is bred for the enjoyment of the aristocracy, and this is reflected in their appearances and designs. 

 

A distinction between the breeds can also be found in literature; for example the quote below comes from 'Farmer's Magazine', written by Archibald Constable, and highlights that although there is a clear physical difference, breeds are also definable (internally) by musculoskeletal varieties:

"Small bones, like those of the blood horse, being compact and heavy: large bones, like those of the common dray,  or cart-horse, being extremely porous, and, consequently, light for their apparent bulk." (155)

The strength and stature of the cart horse comes from its biological make-up, and this was understood within the eighteenth century. The quote highlights that eighteenth-century scientists were interested in understanding the different breeds and what makes them efficient for work in society. The cart-horse is a heavily built breed, but the eighteenth century knew that this was limited to a quantity of muscle. The horse's bone structure on the other hand is understand as porous, and this means the cart horse is able to apply its muscular power to pulling heavy objects, and this makes it an efficient breed for agricultural work.

 

Information booklets, such as 'Annals of Agriculture, And Other Useful Arts' (see Fig. 7b), further highlight the efficiency of cart horses over any other breed:

 

 

Fig 4d

 

Within the text (Fig. 4d): “X. The general breed of our best farm horses is between the coach horse, and the heavy cart and dray horse… The breed of our ordinary farm horses is a mixture of the refuse of all kinds.” ('Annals of Agriculture - Volume XXVIII', 413) 

Generally speaking, these bigger breeds are stronger and thus are more effective in their use in agriculture: Fig. 4d highlights the fact farm horses start work ploughing and doing other light work at 2 years old, whereas other breeds of horses don't start work until they are 5 or 6 years of age. This shows how farm breeds are more profitable because they can start work from an early age.

 

Within the text (Fig. 4d): “VIII. The best cart colts, when set to work, are worth from 15l. [£15] to 22l. [£22]…” ('Annals of Agriculture - Volume XXVIII', 413)

This record demonstrates that, although around the same worth as a post chaise horse, cart colts were almost half the cost of a good hunter horse or Gentleman’s coach horse (a cost of 30 guineas which is around £33). The fact cart colts are cheap in comparison to breeds like the Gentleman's coach horse, highlights how these breeds were not popular in the gentry market but were instead priced to be affordable for farmers or the landed gentry where they were needed for work. The text highlights the fact different breeds had different target markets and were thus accommodative for each section of society.

 

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Work Horses in Art Forms

 

Paintings

 

When considering the subject of horses in paintings it is important to note that the most popular breeds to feature are those of race horses, saddle-horses and mounted military horses. This is because, during the eighteenth century, there was a "growing popularity of equestrian portraits among the upper classes ... [which] reflected the upper-class's absorbed interest in self-promotion... And by a kind of metonymic transfer, the horses themselves came to stand for their owners" (Edwards, 29). Paintings of horses thus became a commercial commodity which cost money, and thus the paintings of farm horses from the century is limited. Therefore, it is interesting to note that most pictures that do include draught horses and cart horses are actually paintings that are depicting a much wider field of topic, mainly that of the rural idyll. This highlights how draught horses had a function in the notion of the pastoral, and thus are a nostalgic element to the country-life scene.

 

Fig. 5a

'Sunset: Carthorses Drinking at a Stream'. Thomas Gainsborough. c.1760 

 

This painting gives the narrative of an independent peasant family travelling back from market stopping to give their cart horses a drink in a nearby pool.

Despite the number of paintings depicting thoroughbred breeds (owned by the upper class), horses were not limited to the aristocracy; the agricultural working classes also used horses for travel, transport, and field work. Horses were imperative to the affluence of men, both of the working class and middle class (farm owners, etc.) in the countryside. In order to make a profit, products had to be taken to markets to be sold, horses were thus required to cart these products to and from the markets in quantities that humans could not. Humans in country life were dependent on horses. In addition, horses also allowed independent family units to support themselves by working the land (see Fig. 5a). 

 

Horses working on the land with agricultural farmers/workers:

Fig. 5b

'Haymakers'. George Stubbs. 1785.

 

Painting of draught-horses at work, harnessed to a hay rig which they will transport for the workers. The picture depicts a horse attached to a rig by a typical harness and bridle. The draught-horses function in agricultural society is validated by the picture, as the size of the produce (hay) on the rig will weigh for too much for a human to carry. The cart horse's power and its strength is thus validated as imperative to making a farm efficient.

 

Draught horses were also used by middle class working men, such as farm owners or bailiffs. 

Fig. 5c

'Reapers'. George Stubbs. c. 1785.

 

Within the painting a farm owner or bailiff figure is depicted riding a draught horse, as can be presumed by his tweed jacket and leather breeches. The horse gives the rider a status and puts him above the workers in the image (both physically and in terms of status). Farm owners were able to survey and maintain their farm efficiently by riding, as well as maintain a degree of superiority over their workers. As a result, while draught horses were considered most efficient for farm work and pulling rigs and ploughs, they were still capable of being ridden despite prejudices against them as being uncomfortable and unsuitable (see Fig. 5g).

 

Literature: Exploring reality versus the pastoral

 

Quality of life of the working farm horse:

The reality for working farm horse was that they were worked hard (often over-worked), and were treated namely as a sole means of labor (See Fig. 5d):

“Could the poor post-horse tell thee all his woes;

Show thee his bleeding shoulders and unfild

The dreadful anguish he endures for gold…

… Limbs grow week, his bare ribs bleed;

And though he groaning quickens at command, Their extra shilling in the rider’s hand.” (Boomfield, 56)

 

In reality, horses were often exploited for money and profit. The poem, 'The farmer's boy' written by Robert Bloomfield, contrasts the pastoral tranquility and positive human-beast companionship as is often presented in rural paintings of the idyll:

Fig. 5d.

 

The following section of dialogue taken from 'Tristam Shandy, A Sentimental, Shandean Bagatelle, in Two Acts' also highlights the reality of working conditions for cart-horses and the impacts it has on their health:

"Oba: Patriot! ah Susan! no---poor Patriot's sold! Well, I'll e'en borrow the miller's carthorse, or walk, for better to walk thro' thick and thin all the days of a man's life, than to ride a poor unshod devil, or a devil with a gall'd back, that must feel pain every inch of the road---But I forgot master's returned from the inn, and would speak with you, Mr. Trim." 

This section of dialogue taken from 'Tristam Shandy...' highlights the reality of a cart-horse's living and work conditions as rough, hard, laborious, and detrimental. The animal is humanised within the text as the speaker sympathises with it, calling it "poor" and referencing to the fact that it, like humans, can and "must feel pain". (MacNally, 7)

 

The description of the horse's "gall'd back" is a reference to an injury made sore by the excessive rubbing of saddles or harnesses. Over all the text suggests that cart horses were commonly over-worked and not properly cared for, and these made them a degenerate breed towards the end of their life span.  

It is important to note that in terms of animal behaviour and welfare, horses, along with other animals, were not protected under law until 1822 (19th century). This animal protection law is known contemporarily as 'The Martin's Act' and was "the first enduring parliamentary animal protection law..." in which it became a crime to "wantonly and cruelly beat or ill-treat any horse, mare, gelding, mule... or other cattle." (Mills, 18). This implies that horses, and other working animals, were not legally protected from maltreatment nor malnourishment, and as a result many horses and cattle were over-worked and over-used as a means of making profit; as is evidenced in the literary pieces aforementioned. Farm owners were thus not legally required to treat their animals humanely, and  therefore many cart horses were depicted as 'worn-out', overworked, tired and malnourished; a product of their working environment.

 

Cart or work horses were also used in eighteenth-century literature as similes or metaphors, as they connote large size and power. When considering the presentation of work horses within these texts it is important to note that some of the texts below reveal that certain perceptions on this breed are not always positive; work horses do not function in higher class society like they do in rural society, and thus they can be presented differently.

 

Fig. 5e

 

Within text (Fig. 5e): ""Villain," he cried, "beyond example!"/"Just like a cart-horse on my beds to trample, more than your foul is worth, to kill me flow'rs!/"See how your two vile hoofs have made a wreck/"Look, rascal, at each beauty's broken neck!"-" (Pindar, 205).

 

The simile in this section of dialogue highlights the draught horse as a breed which is powerful, big and potentially destructive. The simile thus highlights the stature of a draught horse and its purpose as being bred for hard and heavy farm work. Consequently a cart-horse's position in the more delicate upper class society is not well received but rather placed as destructive and clumsy; again the work horse's 'place' is specified as limited to the rural sphere.

 

Fig. 5f

 

The simile, "as big as a cart-horse" (in Fig. 5f), highlights that even by the end of the century (the text was published in 1799), the work horse was still marvelled for its size and power.

 

Another extract from  'Tristam Shandy, A Sentimental, Shandean Bagatelle, in Two Acts':

"Slop: Who do you laugh at, Sirrah? I was coming to pay my devoirs to the widow Wadman, not knowing of your lady's alarm, when this fellow came posting down the narrow lane, at a monstrous and tremendous rate, mounted on a huge cart horse, prick'd into a full gallop."

(MacNally, 12)

 

This section of dialogue emphasises the power and muscularity of the breed. The cart horse is described as "monstrous" and "huge" and this highlights its impressive size in comparison to other horse breeds which are generally considered more slender. The description of the horse thus evidences why it is a good breed for agricultural labor; not only does it appear strong in its size, but it is also able to travel considerably fast, as it is described in "a full gallop" moving at a "tremendous rate". Thus the stature and impressiveness of the breed is evidenced as well as its efficiency in terms of agricultural use.

 

Extract from Hannah Cowley's 'Who's the Dupe?':

"...run against the letter-cart, tore off my hind wheel, and I was forc'd to mount his one-ey'd hack; and, in that curious equipage, arrived at three this morning." (2)

 

This quote highlights how cart-horses were not primarily meant to be ridden, instead they worked and ploughed the land. The fact the speaker felt "forc'd" to ride the horse indicates that this breed was not considered a proper saddle horse in eighteenth-century society; the cart-horse is "curious equipage" because it is not commonly ridden. The description of the horse as a "one-ey'd hack" also emphasises the reality that cart-horses were put to hard and degrading work that had deteriorating effects on its health. Its one eyed nature is a sign that it has been worked hard beyond its working age, perhaps even overworked. The fact the speaker appears unsympathetic to the animals apparent injuries and thus sufferings not only highlights the lack of animal protection during the era, but also implies that cart horses were not treated humanely as they were considered working property.

 

Another extract from Hannah Cowley's 'Who's the Dupe?':

"Miss Doil: For my part---for my part, if I was a Man, I'd study only Dancing, and Bon-Mots. With no other learning than these, he may be light and frolicksome as Lady Airy's Ponies---but loaded with Greek, Philosophy, and Mathematics, he's as heavy and dull as a Cart-horse." (10)

 

In this piece of dialogue it becomes clear that cart-horses were stereotyped alongside Britain's intellects not for their intelligence but for their appearance as "dull" and disengaging. The breed is compared alongside a lady's ponies, which are characterised as lighthearted and represent Britain's more genial society. Again, this juxtaposed description of the nature of two different types of horses highlights the notion that the species was divided by their breed into different spheres of society.

 

The following extract is taken from John O'Keeffe's play 'The Comedy of Wild oats; or, The Strolling Gentlemen' (1792) uses a parodic tone to highlight the uncomfortable nature of riding a cart horse:

 

Fig. 5g

 

John is complaining to Sir Geo about his uncomfortable journey travelling by ship and then by cart-horse. He likens the cart-horse to a ship which tosses him "up and down like an old bum-boat in the Bay of Biscay". The simile highlights how cart-horses were not bred to be ridden but bred to work the hard land and as a result were uncomfortable and had "hard" styled paces.

 

Within literature, there appears to be a stigma against cart horses as representative of a society that is rugged, coarse, unsophisticated and uncultured. In Samuel Johnson's 'A Dictionary of the English Language', he defines the "cart horse" as "a coarse unwieldy horse" (141). The general perception around cart horses in the eighteenth century was that they were a product of their rural environments, and were designed for that setting alone. Just as upper society had a social prejudice against the unrefined nature of rural people, so did they have a preconceived notion that the draught breed was of equal vulgarity; or at least not suited to upper class, urban life of the sought. Cart horses were part of a system similar to that of class, where they belonged to the lower sphere and represented such. This is what literature represents through the repeated similes and metaphors of cart horses as uncourtly, uncomfortable, unrefined and unattractive. 

 

'Man on horseback in stream, horse drinking water and dog watching them'. George Morland. 1792.

 

Artistic perspective:

From an Essay 'On Picturesque Beauty' by William Gilpin (1792):

"Animal life, as well as human, is, in general, beautiful both in nature, and on canvas. We admire the horse, as a real object ; the elegance of his form; the stateliness of his tread; the spirit of all his motions; and the glossiness of his coat. We admire him also in representation . But as an object of picturesque beauty, we admire more the worn-out cart-horse, the cow, the goat, or the ass; whoseharder lines, and rougher coats, exhibit more the graces of the pencil. "  (13-14)

 

The horse is described as "worn-out", again highlighting its definition as "a beast of burden" (OED). The cart-horse appears to wear his labours in his physical appearance, lines and coats, which appear hard and rough; ultimately their bodies serve to visualise the tough nature of their working lives. Gilpin appears to imply that it is this imperfect, rugged nature that gives the artist such inspiration. From an artist's perspective there is beauty in the horse's sufferings. Unlike the sleek, shiny, groomed hunter breed, the cart horse has imperfections which makes it interesting; their degrading bodies function as a visual narrative for their hard working lives.

 

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Exploration of the Horse Species in 'Gulliver's Travels' by Jonathan Swift

 

'Gulliver in discussion with Houyhnhnms'. J.J. Grandville. 1856.

 

Swift dedicates an entire section of his satirical novel ('Gulliver's Travels' [1726]) to the exploration of the horse species, referring to the race as ‘Houyhnhnms’ ('A Voyage to the Country of The Houyhnhnms' [205-277]). Whilst it cannot be said that the whole of the ‘Houyhnhnms’ race is a draught breed, the fact that Swift has Gulliver indicate there is a hierarchy implies that certain horses would be of the equivalent working class breed: Gulliver notes how there was a ‘race of inferior Houyhnhnms, [which were] bred up to be servants’ (Swift, 250). However, Swift does make an explicit reference to the draught breed during a conversation between Gulliver and ‘his master’ (the first horse he meets). Within this conversation, Gulliver explains how horses are treated in his native country (England). As an eighteenth-century satire, this description can be used to ascertain how horses were treated within actual eighteenth-century English society, and thus the description can be read as a historical account. Swift compares how horses of high society (i.e. ‘employed in Travelling, Racing, and drawing Chariots’ [224]) were ‘treated with much Kindness and Care’ (224), however ‘the common Race of Horses had not so good Fortune, being kept by Farmers and Carriers, and other mean People, who put them to greater Labour, and feed them worse’ (224). In addition, Swift further highlights the cruelty of human nature by having Gulliver admit that humanity’s treatment of horses is ‘savage’ (224). Readers can interpret the text as Swift expressing the immoral and greedy nature of humans, which caused draught horses to be exploited and overworked for the sake of profit. Humanities choice to value money over the well-being of their horses, highlights one of the prejudices at work against cart horses that causes them to become shabby, worn down and graceless. Their physical ruin comes from their exploitation by the human race.

 

Following this, an incongruity appears when Gulliver recalls a relationship between himself and a servant horse: ‘his honour ordered one of his servants, a strong sorrel nag, very honest and good-natured, to be my guard; without whose protection I durst not undertake such adventures’ (Swift, 247). The description of the horse as ‘strong’ but a ‘sorrel nag’ highlights the fact it is a working horse, as a sorrel nag implies run-down, or inferior to a thoroughbred horse. However, unlike many literary texts, Gulliver describes the horse’s temperament positively and admirably, therefore validating the species nobility as a whole. Gulliver relies on his sorrel nag’s good nature for protection and security and as a result the draught breed is thus defined as honourable, robust and caring. In addition, Gulliver comments on how their hierarchy is structured on the principles of virtue, as ‘it is reason only that makes a distinction of persons, where there is a superior degree of virtue’ (Swift, 250) As a result of this hierarchy, ‘friendship and benevolence are the two principle virtues among the Houyhnhnms’ (Swift, 250). Gulliver observes how his ‘master show[s] the same affection to his neighbor’s issue, that he had for his own. [The Houyhnhnms] will have it that nature teaches them to love the whole species…’ (Swift, 250) Through this description of the Houyhnhnms’ hierarchy, Swift satirises the flawed and corrupt nature of Britain’s classist and patriarchal social systems. Where eighteenth-century hierarchy was structured on familial status and wealth, the Houyhnhnms’ society was (as Gulliver expresses) structured on degrees of virtue. The Houyhnhnms’ society thus becomes more admirable and estimable in comparison to human society, which appears vain and egotistical. In addition, it can be argued that Swift further satirises humanity through highlighting the further incongruity between the ‘traditional admiration of horses as the noblest animal [Swift chose the horse over all other animal species] and their systematic exploitation as beasts of burden’ (Alkemeyer, 24). This contradiction questions why eighteenth century society would consider horses to be noble creatures but abase them anyway as a means of profit. Although, ‘it is unclear whether Swift’s text advocates better treatment for horses (to accord with their status as the noblest animals) or undermines idealisations of horses (to produce a more compelling rationalisation for exploitation)’ (Alkemeyer, 25). Swift appeals to the reader to consider reason and not to be hypocritical; if a society is going to refer to horses as noble and gallant creatures, then that society cannot treat them as slaves of labour.

 

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Carts and Ploughs

 

Fig. 6a

'Ploughing'. Joseph Mallord William Turner. c.1796

 

There is a distinction between carts used for agricultural work and that of carts used for transporting the aristocracy – mainly the former is based on efficiency, and the latter on comfort and style. The same occurs for the type of saddles horses wore; the saddle horse is commonly bridled with and ridden via the Side-saddle, where as work or farm horses were tacked up using "cart saddles, pack saddles, hackney saddles, load saddles..." (Long, 17), and these were attached to the plough or harrows using a harness commonly known as "the swingle trees (sometimes described as "thorough trees" or "work trees")" (Long, 17). It is important to distinguish the carts used by the aristocracy versus the carts pulled by rural work horses because it highlights the fact that these horses had different functions within society. It is thus also important to analyse the kinds of carts and ploughs working horses pulled in order to analyse their specific function in agricultural society. 

 

It is hard to determine exactly how much and how far a team of four horses could transport goods, this is because "the weight drawn varies according to the goodness of the team. With 4 horses in a waggon, is is generally about 1 ½ ton to two tons; some of the best teams carry 3 tons, of nearly, from 8 to 15 miles out with the load; sometimes more” ('Annals of Agriculture - Volume XXVIII', 539). 

 

Tools horses pulled when working the land

 

When working the land, horses are recorded in handbooks such as Jethro Tull's 'The Horse-Hoeing Husbandry' (1733) and Arthur Young's 'The Farmer's Kalender' (1771), to have pulled tools such as (but not limited to): the ho-plow or hoe-plow (Fig. 6b), the wheat-drill or drill-plough (Fig. 6c), the horse-rake, and the turnip-drill or turnep-drill (6d).

 

The Ho-Plow or Hoe-Plow:

This tool is known to have "the longest history of any implement in Britain" (Long, 19). In basic terms it raises neat ridges for fine ploughing and it takes on average "six hours [to]... hoe three acres" of field (Tull, 266). 

 

Fig. 6b

 

The Wheat-Drill or Drill-Plough:

This tool is used to "make the channels for a treble row of wheat" (Tull, 352) by drilling and upturning holes in the ground.

 

Fig. 6c

 

Horse-Rake:

The horse-rake is a toll which replaced the ‘dew-rake’; replacing man power with horse power for more efficient farming. According to Arthur Young, “this machine expedites the work greatly, as the same that it does it much better… one will work against twenty men… and the price is not above four guineas and an half complete” ('The Farmer's Kalendar', 241). Following the binding and carrying of the field, the horse-rake takes any produce shattered in the binding and 'rakes' them together (hence its name).

 

Turnip-Drill or Turnep-Drill:

"Plate 5 (Fig. 6d) shows the whole mounting of a turnep drill. Fig. 1 is a plow, but little differing from the drill-plow" (Tull, 386). The turnip-drill scores the earth into divots and then distributes the turnip seeds into them. The harrows are designed to make shallow cuts into the earth so that the best conditions are made for the turnips to sprout in, 

as “seeds lying very shallow, being only cover’d by a little Earth rais’d by the Harrow, by its shallowness comes up in moist weather sooner that the other half, which lies in deeper ground” (Tull, 391). The machine makes farming more efficient because it controls the depth of the channels and thus produces a faster growth of crop.

 

 Fig. 6d

 

"The Drill will follow the horse..." (Tull, 380):

Despite having slightly different functions, what all these tools have in common is the fact that they use cart horses as a means of power and transportation. The horses worked with the tools manually as they were harnessed to them via collars, straps, and reigns. These work horses were required to pull the ploughs and drills up and down the fields in parallel lines in order to give the field sufficient coverage. The reigns allowed farm workers to lead the horses and direct them in their work, but the sole effort of powering these machines relied on horse power.

 

In addition, what is important about these tools is that they can be used as evidence of a growing mechanised industry; one that was powered by work horses and is thus indebted to them. In his essay, 'The Development of Mechanization in English Farming', W. Long explains how, in the 1770's, a tool known as a winnowing machine was designed to be used by horses (costing around £4 to £6) that could clean and sort grain more efficiently than any tool that preceded it (18). As well as this, new portable threshing machines in the 1780's were designed which could be used to rub out grain or beat it out. Other mechanised tools include the seed-drill, however most farmers were reportedly skeptical of these designs, and thus they were less commonly found on farms in conjunction with farm horses (19). As a result, mechanised tools were beginning to take precedence in the late eighteenth-century farming sphere that were inspired by the efficiency of horse drawn ploughs and tools. Taking the farming tools as aforementioned as examples, the importance of work horses in advancing mechanisation within the agricultural sphere is emphasised. When we consider the measurement term 'horsepower' in the modern times, it can be noted that it is from the pulling of carts and ploughs from the eighteenth century that the term is referring to: the term originated around the end of the eighteenth century and refers to the power of a horse in drawing. 

 

A Surprising Partnership

 

Despite the obvious presence of horses in agricultural society, they were not alone in the work of ploughing. Oxen were also considered 'draught animals', and worked alongside cart horses to plough and cultivate the land. In his essay on the 'Annals of Agriculture and Other Useful Arts' (1797), Arthur Young highlights how, generally speaking, "the ground is ploughed by oxen; and horses used to bring home the harvest, carry out manure, corn, &c” (539). In 'The Gentleman Farmer Being An Attempt To Improve Agriculture By Subjecting It To The Test Of Rational Principles', Henry Home records, in a first person account, how he saw "in the road from Leeds to Wetherby... a loaded cart drawn by two stout horses and a bull, all in a line, the bull in the middle. That draught was not slower than those before or after in the same road, and surely the bull would not have been added had it retarded the horses." (30)

As a result, farmers were beginning to replace horses for oxen when ploughing the fields. Not only were oxen cheaper, "the price of a horse fit for labour doubles that of an ox" (Home, 31), but they were considered to be less liable to diseases than horses, required less attention than horses, of which "must be curried, combed and rubbed down (Home, 32) after work, and had convex backs which allowed them to carry a larger weight than horses who had concave backs. Therefore, when working the fields, horses were often seen working in partnership with oxen.

 

The picture (Fig. 6e) below shows a hay cart being pulled by two oxen, lead by a draught horse. The picture highlights how horses and oxen worked together to aid farm work by carting produce as well as working the land.

 

Fig. 6e

'Haycart Passing a Ruined Abbey'. John Wootton. c.1745.

 

Average cost of fully equipping a farm

 

The buying and maintaining of cart horses and other livestock was the most costly part of owning a farm, but equipping a farm for agriculture work also added to a farmer's expense. An inventory of an agricultural farm would have to include the harnesses and ploughs worn by the plough teams (the shared work of horses and oxen), as agricultural equipment was an imperative part of ploughing and harvesting.

 

Fig. 6f

Fig. 6g

 

Following the figures from Fig. 6f and 6g, on average, if a farm was to fully equip its team of work horses and oxen with one piece of each gear, it would cost a farmer in the eighteenth century a minimum of 86 shillings (rounded figure).

 

 

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Costs of keeping a work horse

 

Equipment was not the only cost that a farmer had to be aware of when maintaining and working with farm horses. The cost to breed, buy, sell and maintain a work horse was also important to consider within rural society, as is implied by the extensive detail that can be found in farm handbooks and pamphlets.

 

Cost of breeding and maintaining a working horse:

 

Breeding and Buying:

 

The understood general rule of breeding in the eighteenth century was to make sure that the stallion and mare which will parent the foal are of equal measure in stature and health to the desired quality of the offspring. The notion of hereditary was understood so that, in terms of producing a strong and healthy foal, parents of equal health and strength must be used. Breeding a good stock of foals and colts became such an art that it produced stud farms, farms designed specifically for the purpose of producing the most suitable and finest cart horses for the market.

 

Fig. 7a

 

Fig. 7a, implies that breeders understood that, in terms of hereditary, the dominant gene for the "form and shape" of the foal came from the mare, rather than the stallion. The text suggests that if you desire "beautiful strong colts" the parents of it must be similarly pleasing in terms of aesthetics, especially the mares. The "head and neck" of the horse is considered to be "the most beautiful part of the horse" and therefore suggests what was examined during the buying and selling process of horses, i.e. the more aesthetically pleasing the horse the more it is worth. However, the text also considers how a horses looks was not the only thing considered during the breeding and selling process. Large colts were considered desirable due to the nature of farm horses being well-built in order to have the strength to do farm work, as is their purpose. The text suggests a farmer should keep "large bellied Mares, that the Colts may have room to grow in, and give them large keeping, and then you need not fear their size let the Stallion be of what stature he will." Therefore, when deciding on which mare to breed the advice given was that the larger and tamer the mare the better the mare would be at being able to support the growth of the colt during pregnancy. Generally speaking "it is no great matter what colour they (the mares) are of, or what marks they have..." instead "...they must be full of strength, have superfluidity of spirit, and not above six or seven years old" (Solleysel, 251).

 

 Fig. 7b

 

In terms of the brood Mare, the text in Fig. 7b suggests that the tamer the mare, the better, and suggests a way to do this is to limit their plough work to "an hour or two in a day". The same advice is offered during the rearing of a colt: limit the work to ensure its tameness. Tamed mares allow for safe handling by their groom/keeper which is important during a mares pregnancy, whereas it is suggested wild mares will destroy their colts due to their wild behaviour. 

Caring for your brood mare requires a pasture of good land that is well fenced in which the mares can occupy with other horses during the months of April and May (the breeding months); it is suggested that the stallions are more likely to serve more mares if she is turned out rather than housed; otherwise a process of stabling, feeding and blood letting must take place for best results of breeding. 

 

This text highlights that there was an understanding of how mares and stallions should be bred, both in terms of genetics and maintenance. Advice on choosing a colt's parents is given, as well as maintaining the stallion and mare during the breeding process, in order to achieve a most impressive colt.

 

There was an understanding of how a horses value equated to its youth: the more valuable a horse, the younger it is; Arthur Young highlights how the annual decline of value of a farm horse after seven years old was around "2l(/£2)” ('Annals of Agriculture - Volume XXVIII, 617). A horses age was measured in years, wherein after seven years of age the value of a horse declined on average by £2 yearly. In addition, Fig. 3a highlights how a buyer could study a horse's teeth to tell tell its age, and thus work out the value of the horse he intends to buy. The process of thus buying a horse was also done under extensive examination. Buyers were required to understand the biology of a horse in equation to its performance abilities. Generally speaking a young colt with well-built parents would be the most popular choice for potential buyers, and this would mean sellers would need to know the colt's genetic history as well as its own physical condition. 

 

Buying a work horse:

 

Despite the fact Arthur Young, in 'Annuals of Agriculture and Other Useful Arts', suggests the worth of a cart horse, when set to work, is "from 15l. [£15] to 22l. [£22]" (413), which "Communications to the Board of Agriculture" agrees with naming their price of a farm horse at work as "25l. (£25)" (408). There are not many other sources that are willing to give a definitive figure of how much cart or work horses were typically sold for. In general, any notions of work horses being sold and bought are limited to advertisements in magazines and newspapers in regards to upcoming auctions. This lack of information surrounding the topic of horse selling and buying can be interpreted as due to the fact that the value of a work horse depended on its age, its breed, its handling nature and its medical condition at the time of sale; thus the unpredictable nature of horses as a working-class animals is emphasised.

 

The following texts are examples of clippings placed in newspapers and magazines which highlight the common form cart horses were advertised in. What is most notable is the fact that, while there are descriptions concerning the colouring, gender, height (in hands) and age of the horses for sale, there are in no instances an indication of price.

 

The following is an advertisement placed in the 'Harrop's Manchester Mercury' on the 22nd of March 1774. Amongst other things the auctioneer is bidding off a draft horse that is described simply by its markings ("grey") and its age ("six years old"), the notion of the animal having "a full mane and tail" signifies its health and unmarred, fully grown state; it is fit for immediate work.

 

"This Afternoon will be sold in Berr’s Auction-
Room...

...And exactly at four o’Clock will be sold, a grey Draft
Horse, six Years old, with a full Mane and Tail; a 
brown Filly, 4 years old, got by Elephant; a ches-
nut Mare, rising 7 years old; and a Whisky with
the Harness..."

 

Fig. 7c is another clipping obtained from 'The York Chronicle', printed by John White and others (1772-1773), which advertises the fact that three stallions are to be auctioned off. The advert explains that the three ston'd horses are "of the heavy kind", a notion to their bodies as being of the stature for draught purposes. The fact they are noted as ston'd is a reference to the fact they are stallions (they are uncastrated) and can thus also be used for further breeding. The advert then advises on the horses' ages to which the youngest is three years old, the next horse is four years old, and the eldest is five years old. However, the fact they are all under seven years of age implies they are still in their youth and capable of many years of work before their values decline (at seven years of age). Significantly, the advertisement implies that these horses are "to be sold" for a price, but that price is not stated. Again this advertisement highlights the fact that there was not really a set price for horses, instead they were bartered for and auctioned off.

 

 Fig. 7c

 

There are notions what after their prime working years (after 6 years old), after they "have been moderately worked" ('Annals of agriculture - Volume XXVIII', 411), farm horses can be sold on "from 25 to 40 guineas a piece" ('Annals of agriculture - Volume XXVIII', 411). However, considering a farm horses value declines after seven years old, then these horses are not being sold in the prime of their working age, and thus are not being sold at the same price as say a horse of two years old, which has its whole working career ahead of it before it begins to decline in value. 

 

The value of a horse can also be interpreted through relevant notices/advertisements:

The following advertisement (Fig. 7d) highlights how a sorrel (Chestnut) horse was stolen from Caerllegan-Fach Farm and anybody able to find the horse or apprehend the offender would be rewarded two guineas. This suggests the worth of the horse to the farm owner is around two guineas. 

 

Fig. 7d

 

      

Fig. 7e

 

This advertisement (Fig. 7e) gives details which makes the horses identifiable. The horses are valued at "two guineas" each, as this is what the owner is offering for their individual safe returns. Whilst the advertisement does not suggest the price of the horse at sale, it does imply that horses were valuable. The main point is that horses for sale were worth more than the prices they were offered as rewards, as otherwise the owner would replace them with new horses for the same price.

 

What to look for when buying a cart horse

 

There was an understood art to buying a horse in the eighteenth century. Buyers were advised upon what to examine before purchasing a horse for a certain purpose.

 

For example, within his guide, ‘The compleat horseman: discovering the surest marks of the beauty, goodness, faults and imperfections of horses’, Jacques de Solleysel focuses much attention on the formation of a horse's shoulders as a telltale sign of whether a horse would be fit for the buyer's purpose:

“The shoulders are one of the parts of a horse chiefly to be considered, because in buying a horse they should be exactly look’d to, and you should not take it for a commendation of a horse, that people say he is broad, and large over all…” (10)

And,

“A horse which is very mush charged with his shoulder, is fit for nothing but draught, that is either for coach or cart; because he will be less subject to galling and spoiling by the coller and traces of the harness, than if he had nothing upon his shoulders but skin and bone, but then he will not trot so lightly upon travel, and therefore will weary so much the sooner." (33) 

 The author suggests a proper size for a cart horse can be found be measuring the distance between the horse's fore thighs ("just at the top of his shoulders" [15]) and the result "should be about half a foot, or five inches" (15).

And,

Another means of checking if a horse is good to be worked for ploughing purposes involves observing the mouth:

“All horses which have their mouths naught may draw a cart, but not in a coach, where they must be light, and have a pretty good and sensible mouth.” (10)

 

Further advice involves looking for “large and full breasts, or counter…" (10) as such “large and broad counters do very well, for they make them (cart horses) draw with more ease, and the harness galleth them the less.” (10) The notion that “the bigger, the better he is” (29), is exemplified here, it was encouraged to think that the best work horse requires large muscles and ligaments and therefore size equates to ability when ploughing. 

 

It was understood that because horses had different social purposes they were built differently, and certain aspects of their muscular structures made them appropriate for certain social roles. Therefore “…if the saddle horses had their shoulders large, fleshy and broad, as the Painters affect to represent them, they would be fit only for a cart…” (15) If a buyer was looking for a saddle horse then he would look for a more dainty structured horse, one that has more petite shoulders, and is less broad in its fore thighs; this makes the horse appropriate for riding but not appropriate for draught purposes. When horse buyers went to auction/market to buy a horse they must be intellectually prepared to examine a horse and its physical qualities as a means of understanding its purposes and abilities. 

 

General cost of keeping a work horse:

 

 Fig. 8a  Fig. 8b 

 

'Annuals of Agriculture, And Other Useful Arts - Vol. XXVIII.' (Fig. 7b) specifies the cost of a horse by setting out an equation and adding up what, financially speaking, a horse requires feed wise to be kept: 

 

Fig. 8c     Fig. 8d

This handbook works out the cost to feed a team of horses (four horses in a team) as 75L. (£75) for 31 weeks during the summer months.

 

However, the cost of a horse’s feed in the winter is different to that in the summer. Per week, a stabled horse (during winter) costs roughly 7 shillings; whereas in the summer the cost lowers to 6 shillings of feed per week (of the 22 weeks of summer), because the horse is also able to graze on grass in pastures and horses feed, such as hay, is reduced (maths continues onto Pg. 537). See Figs. 8e. and 8g. for full breakdown of calculations:

 

 Fig. 8e  Fig. 8f

 

Annual Cost overall:

 

The over all cost of keeping a farm horse averaged out at around £16: Horses that are “fat, sleek and fit for sale… moderately worked till 5 or 6 years of age, and then sold from 25 to 40 guineas a piece…. cost 14l. [£14], or even 15l. [£15] to 20l. [£20] a year. But the majority of our farmers are between these extremes, and their expenses are about 8l. [£8] or 9l. [£9]” ('Annals of agriculture - Volume XXVIII', 411).

“I have never calculated the annual expense of keeping a farm horse in oats, hay, straw, summer for, farrier, and shoeing, separately; but I consider the expense of each horse not to be less than 6s. a week, when they work.” ("Communications to the Board of Agriculture", 179) This amounts to around £15 and 60 pence a year.

By comparing the two handbooks on agricultural husbandry it can be assumed that a farm horse, on average, cost around £16 to maintain. 

 

In addition, Arthur Young reveals the cost of a farrier to attend a cart horse was "5s. or 6s. (shillings)" ('Annals of Agriculture - Volume XXVIII', 413). Interestingly, it would cost owners of hunters or post-chaise horses up to "40s. a head" for a farrier's visit. What this implies is that cart horses were inferior to hunters and post-chaise horses, and therefore the treatment they would receive would be significantly poorer to the treatment of other breeds would receive. 

 

Care and Maintenance

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Fig. 8g - Title page to 'The Farmer's Kalendar'

 

Handbooks like 'The Farmer's Kalender' (Fig. 8g) highlight the fact that horses needed to be constantly cared for. From feeding, grazing, farriery and stable management, horses demanded individual attention to ensure they remained healthy and fit for work. Handbooks also highlight the fact that, like humans, cart horses had routines that must change with the seasons. A lack of care could cause major damage to the health of a horse, and thus its productivity concerning farm work would be diminished. The number of handbooks evident on the use of caring for cart horses highlights the importance of looking after them. 

 

1. Feeding

 

Horses were fed mainly in two different forms. One being in a stabled environment indoors and fed via a handmade meal of oats, hay, ground beans and other forms of vegetation. The other means of feeing involved being turned out in pastures. Although the pastures had to be checked for any poisonous vegetation, pastures mainly gave horses the freedom to graze naturally. This latter form of feeding occurred mainly in the summer when vegetation was of abundance, and the former stabled feeding process occurred in the winter or when horses were lame (injured) or pregnant.

 

On farms the mixing of grazing cattle was warned against as, “‘Tis as easy to believe, that a Horse, by feeding in a certain pasture, will degenerate into a Bull, and in other pastures will revert to a Horse again…” (Tull, 250). As a result of rural superstition, horses were often segregated into fields separate to that of bulls and other cattle species to maintain their agricultural functions. Therefore a typical agricultural scene would witness horses grazing separately to that of other cattle, namely bulls.

The exception to this however is oxen, to which horse were often partnered with to work: "The number of horses to 100 acres is five with oxen, or eight without” (Communications to the Board of Agriculture, 179). As a means of reducing cost and making grazing more cost effective, Arthur Young, in 'Annals of agriculture, and other useful arts. Volume XXVIII', suggests engaging with the practice of soiling, which means "three horses, at least, can be fed from the same extent of ground as two, when pastured in a field", and this also means "perhaps, twice the quantity of valuable manure is obtained" (414). In addition soiling means a reduction to the use of hay, and thus in summer it costs 6 shillings to feed a horse per week, where as if not soiled it costs 6 shillings and 6 pence (6 pence extra) to feed a farm horse per week ('Annals of agriculture - Volume XXVIII', 537).

 

There is, however, a change in routine of feeding following the seasonal transition of summer into winter. Grazing in pastures was a cheaper privilege contained to the summer months, however as winter approaches and the weather harshens the teams of cart horses must be brought indoors for shelter, as they can not live healthily in pastures exposed to extreme weather. Handbooks and textual guides can be used to highlight the main differences between the months.

 

Summer months:

 

In 'The Farmer's Kalendar', Arthur Young recommends that horses be fed a diet of lucerne, and that it “should be regularly mown every day; or every two days at most, and the best way of carrying it to the stable will be in a small skeleton-cart drawn by one horse, and made for the purpose. In the cutting it, the plantation should be marked into thirty or fifteen divisions, one to be mown every day, or every two days, and the cattle so proportioned, that they may eat it regularly…” (163). The reason lucerne is considered an important part of the cart horses diet is because it helps supply "plenty of litter for trading into dung... a principle part of [the farmer's] profit" (220). Other herbs and vegetation advised upon as food is clover, sainfoin, and tares "mown everyday" (220). Also, as an alternative to these plants, "natural grass" (221) is also advised upon for turning horses and oxen out onto. In addition, horses "must have water always at command" (220). In another handbook, it is advised that, from a cost effective perspective, “the cheapest, and I think the best food for a working horse, is ground beans, mixed with a very large quantity of cut” ("Communications to the Board of Agriculture", 179). Beans are a good food source for horses because they are rich in proteins, complex carbohydrates and iron; substances farm horses required to maintain their energy and enthusiasm for work. The handbook also suggests mixing these ground beans with a large quantity of cut (hay), and this is a common staple food. 

  

Winter months:

 

The difference is the fact that it is a lot more expensive to feed a horse in the winter because they have no access to the natural part of their diet i.e. grass, and thus:

“the horses must be put to dry mean; that is hay, oats, and chaff. Here begins the great expense of horses; for they must be fed at a considerable cost, or they will fall off in flesh, so as to be able to do but little work. The best of hay should be given to them, and as much of it as they can eat; also as much chaff as they like… if there is enough of it; if not, straw and hay cut into chaff: as to oats, is the horses are worked as constantly as they ought, they should be allows two bushels per horse per week, which will be sufficient to seep them in good heart, and make amends for the loss of lucerne: with this food they may be hard worked every day throughout winter.” ('The Farmer's Kalendar', 318-319) 

 

Feeding the horses well as aforementioned means cart horses can "be kept constantly at hard work”. ('The Farmer's Kalender, 321) Just because of the winter months causing harsh weather conditions does not mean cart horses are required to stop working in the fields. Only their care and maintenance must be altered to meet the harsher and more effort consuming conditions. 

 

When turned out to pasture on unsoiled land in the summer it costs to feed a horse 6 shillings and 6 pence per week. However, in the winter months, "from the beginning of October to the beginnings of May" ('The Farmer's Kalender, 536) it costs 7 shillings per week to feed a horse that is stabled ('The Farmer's Kalender', 536). In addition to this more expensive cost less profit is being made as manure can not be obtained as in summer; this adds to the cost of feeding. 

Due to the fact it was so expensive to feed horses in the winter there are cost cutter schemes that people were informed of to help them maintain profits. For example in 'The Farmer's Kalender', Arthur Young explains that “there is a way to lessen the cost greatly, which is substituting carrots instead of oats, or, at least, instead of the greatest part of oats” (319). In addition, depending on how rural the area, most independent farmers may not have been able to afford the upkeep of a horse as these guides suggest, and therefore it is likely that in poorer areas farm horses survived mainly on the more staple foods of hay and grass, with these suggested substitutions being a regular occurrence.

 

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Profitable species?

"The horse is an expensive servant" (Davies, 105)

 

In Young's book, 'Annals of agriculture, and other useful arts. Vol. XXXV', he reveals that the ‘Earl of Galloway’s Farm’ makes a total profit of £573 and 4 shillings minus rent a year. The farm is “about two hundred and fifty acres”, with a rent cost of £2250. Of this, “barley, oats, potatoes &c.” constitute £584 and 4 shillings of the profit (205); this is the largest source of income bar the profit on the cattle stock, which is over double the profit the crops bring in. This vegetation is attained through ploughing, thus this highlights the kind of profit horses brought in as they were used to plough the fields. Considering the yearly cost of a farm horse and the cost to buy one, it can be determined that the farm horse does bring in a significant profit. Theoretically speaking, if the Earl bought a team of farm horses (four horses) at £25 and then paid £16 to maintain them for that first year (note these are rough figures and do not factor in for illness and lameness), he could expect a profit of £420 that first year. This figure however would change depending on the value of the land and how many acres it is. This figure also does not include the salaries that would be paid to stablehands and other field workers, which in Aberdeenshire is "10 shillings per acre of the ground they plough". (Davies, 232)

 

Overall, the notion of using the cart horse as a means of gaining profit underlines the fact that these horses were not considered as pets. In the eighteenth century, a pet was defined as "an animal (typically one which is domestic or tame) kept for pleasure or companionship" (OED). The thought that goes into the upkeep and maintenance of the cart horse implies that the relationship between man and cart horse is less of a companionship and more of a working partnership; one that was not always fair, with profit often, in reality, being prioritised above the welfare of the animal. 

 

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Bibliography:

 

This secondary source supplies information about horses from across the centuries, beginning with the evolution of the horse as a species. In terms of contextualisation, it was particularly useful in placing the eighteenth-century work horse amongst a timeline of other breeds. It highlights the eighteenth century as pivotal for the draught horse breed in terms of mechanisation within the agricultural industry.