Gloves in Eighteenth Century Literature

 

Definition of glove as defined by the Oxford English Dictionary:

 

Forms:  OE glóf, ME glofe, (ME Sc. gluwe), ME glowe, gluff, ME–16 gloove, ME–16 Sc. gluif, glufe, 15 Sc. gluve, ME– glove.

Etymology: Old English glóf strong feminine (also weak plural glófan) = Old Norse glófe weak masculine

By some scholars considered to represent an Old Germanic *galôfâ , -on- , < ga- prefix + lôf- root of Gothic lôfa , Old Norse lófe , hand

 

b. a pair of gloves given as a present or claimed as a forfeit; mentioned as a pretext for making a present in money

?1566–7   G. Buchanan Opinion Reformation Univ. St. Andros in Vernacular Writings (1892) 14   Sa mony of the assistandis to thys act as be graduat in divinite..sal haif for their presens and decoryng of the act, ane pair of gluvis.

1631   J. Shirley Loves Crueltie v. ii,   Mi. [a servant] Pray excuse me sir! Hi. Twill purchase but a pair of Gloves.

1714   J. Gay Shepherd's Week vi. 38   Cic'ly, brisk maid, steps forth before the rout, And kiss'd with smacking lip the snoring lout. For custom says, Who-e'er this venture proves, For such a kiss demands a pair of gloves.

1740   S. Richardson Pamela II. 346   You'll accept of that for a Pair of Gloves, on this happy Occasion; and I gave him ten Guineas.

a1753   P. Drake Mem. (1755) II. iii. 148   He squeezed a Louis d'Or into my Hand for a Pair of Gloves.

1828   Scott Fair Maid of Perth v, in Chron. Canongate 2nd Ser. I. 135   Thou knowest the maiden who ventures to kiss a sleeping man, wins of him a pair of gloves.

1851   Official Catal. Great Exhib. 576   White gloves are..presented to the Judges on occasion of a maiden-assize.

 

 

Gloves in High Fashion and Society - The Rise of the Gloved Population

 

 

 

Portrait of Eleanor Frances Dixie, daughter of Wolstan Dixie, 4th Baronet b Henry Pickering (fl.1740-1771), circa 1753

 

 

The gloves that Eleanor Frances Dixie is seen to be pulling on in this painting are very similar to a pair found at the London Museum. The picture below right shows these knitted silk gloves which form part of a set of female clothes and accessories for a lay figure used and made by artist Louis François Roubiliac. The prevalence of gloves in fashion and the arts, as well as the fact there are still preserved items on display today show the true importance of gloves to the Eighteenth century public.

 

 

Within the Eighteenth century psyche there is a fetishistic interest in clothing that touches bare flesh, even more so with items below the petticoats such as stockings. Nevertheless, the sight of a naked hand during this Eighteenth century is shown to titillate the male gaze, demonstrated most clearly in Fanny Hill, where Fanny explains an episode in her career as a prostitute with one of her clients;

Another peculiarity of taste he had, which was to present me with a dozen pairs of the whitest kid gloves at a time: these he would divert himself with drawing on me, and then biting off their finger ends; all which fooleries of a silly appetite, the old gentleman paid more liberally for, than most others did for more essential favours. (Cleland, 174)

 

Another specimen of gloves found in the London Museum are those of Princess Charlotte, dated from 1815 to 1817. These are a pair of pale yellow Limerick leather gloves, made of one long piece with a separate piece for the thumb and gusseted fingers. They are marked inside right glove by hand: 'Lyons Limerick Ireland'. Limerick Gloves were a renowned style of glove that became popular throughout England and Ireland during the late 18th century. Commonly referred to as ‘chicken-skins’, the gloves were renowned for their delicate texture. They were made from a thin strong leather derived from the skin of unborn calves and sold encased in a walnut shell according to the  Museum of Leathercraft.

 

These gloves pictured directly below reveal the plumpness of Princess Charlotte's fingers and arms showing that this type of glove were worn only by the aristocracy who could afford the more expensive specimens of gloves, and therefore also the best quality of food. This type of glove was always worn with dinner and evening dresses, and was usually made of the finest kid to adhere to the specific needs of the aristocracy. Nevertheless, the average Eighteenth century woman would never be seen without gloves, as similarly to wigs, gloves were very much a status symbol of the Eighteenth century.

 

 

 

 

One of the unique selling points of these 'Limerick' gloves was that they were sold encased in a walnut shell, as shown in the photograph on the right.

 

 

 

The à la mode high society of the Eighteenth century society began to promote more and more the production of high fashion, with tailors beginning to advertise themselves with the use of trade cards. Trade cards were used to 'display garments and fabric for sale as well as generic female and male figures modelling gowns and suits. Several cards from the early 1800s break down the body into separate components and position measuring charts alongside male and female figures' (Wigston Smith, 376). These cards showed the general public how to reproduce the most popular fashions of the time, and following these fashions, the woman on the card is predictably wearing gloves.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Google Books Ngram Viewer showing the prevalence of the use of glove or gloves in English literature between 1700 and 1900

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

The Google Ngram Viewer is a phrase-usage graphing tool which charts the yearly count of selected letter combinations or words and phrases, as found in over 5.2 million books published between 1500 and 2008 digitised by Google. The words or phrases are matched by case-sensitive spelling, comparing exact uppercase letters, and plotted on the graph if found in 40 or more books during each year of the requested year-range.

 

As shown by the graph, there is a steady increase of the mention of glove and gloves in the literature of the Eighteenth to the Twentieth Century, with a higher usage of the plural rather than the singular form. This increased prevalence of gloves in the literature of the time proves how much gloves, and the wearing of them, became ingrained into the culture and society of Eighteenth century.

 

 

 

 

In this culture of the Eighteenth century, gloves played a very important role in the reputation of women. Those who wore gloves were seen as respectable, and if a woman was seen without them her reputation could very quickly be brought into disrepute. The rules for this are explained in The Etiquette for Ladies 4th Edition, published in 1837;

It is not considered proper for ladies to wear gloves during dinner. To appear in public without them – to sit in church or in a place of public amusement destitute of these appendages, is decidedly vulgar. Some gentleman insist on stripping off their gloves before shaking hands; - a piece of barbarity, of which no lady will be guilty. (9)

 

This fragility is further shown in Pope's satirical poem The Rape of the Lock with the juxtaposition of the serious and frivolous and serious aspects of daily life; 

 

Whether the Nymph shall break Diana’s Law,

Or some frail China Jar receive a Flaw,

Or stain her Honour, or her new Brocade,

Forget her Pray’rs, or miss a Masquerade,

Or lose her Heart, or Necklace, at a Ball;

Or whether Heav’n has doom’d that Shock must fall.

(1.105–10)

 

 

 

Gloves in Literature

 

 

Gloves in Courtship

 

As shown in the literature of the Eighteenth century, gloves play a large role in courtship between men and women. Used as gifts, professions of love, and offers of marriage; they are invaluable to society of the time. In Memoirs of the court of England, Madame d’Aulnoy complains in Letter XXIV that ‘the Gloves [her admirer] sent [her], are too much perfumed’. She then follows on by writing ‘I send you back, my Lord, your present, and your Declaration; pray keep both for some other Person, that may be disposed to return your Favours according to your Wish’ (191). The fact that Madame d’Aulnoy associates the gloves with a ‘Declaration’ of love, and also names them as a ‘present’ clearly shows their role in gender relations. Similarly in the Tryal between Robert Earl of Essex, and the Lady Frances Howard the woman must tread very carefully in the world where gloves have particular significance. As the trial document says,

 

For dancing one time among the Ladies, and her Glove falling down, it was taken up, and presented to [the Prince], by one that thought he did him acceptable Service; but the Prince refus’d to receive it, saying publickly, He would not have I, it is stretcht by another, meaning the Viscount.

 

This public rejection of the lady’s glove is seen as being as bad as a rejection of her person, showing that gloves can take on human properties when they are used in a courtship. It is also interesting to note the similarity between the stretching of a glove, which would have been done to ensure its proper fit, and the sexual implication of the “stretching” that is inferred by the Prince. In this case, the gloves are also a representation of the body of the woman in question.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

This link between romance and gloves is emphasised further by a poem written in a collection of epigrams, entitled ‘To a young Lady with a Pair of Gloves, on Valentine’s Day, said to be by Dr. B----y’.

 

Brimful of anger, not of love,

The champion sends his foe a glove,

But I that have a double share

Of th’ softer passion – send a pair.

Nor think it, dearest Delia, cruel,

That I invite you to a duel.

Ready to meet you face to face,

At any time, in any place:

Nor shall I leave you in the lurch

Tho’ you should dare to fix the church.

There come equipp’d with all your charms,

A ring and licence are my arms.

I will th’ unequal contest try,

Resolv’d to fight, tho’ sure to die.

(54)

 

The fact the poem is written to a young lady on ‘Valentine’s Day´ places it firmly in the genre of love poetry as even before one reads the poem it is clear who and what the subject of the poem will be. The juxtaposition between courtship or marriage and duelling is typical Eighteenth century wit, shown with the use of one glove to propose a duel and two to propose marriage. The pair of gloves facilitates the marriage proposal, ‘dare to fix the church’; just as in Memoirs of an English Court the proposal of romantic love is rejected. The simple style of the poem, with couplets and iambic tetrameter conceal the serious message of love behind the poem.

 

 

­­­Benedict sums this use of objects as follows, ‘Just as the object will lend permanence to the words, the words will add human feeling to the object.’ She uses the example of A poesie sent with a pair of Gloves, where the writer envies the gift that he sends to his lover:

 

These Gloves are happy

That kiss your hand,

Which long have held my heart

In Cupids bands.

(201)

 

 

 

Gloves in Marriage

 

 

Gloves were also traditionally given in the celebration of a marriage. The diarist Samuel Sewall Jr’s Letter-Book of Samuel Sewall, Nov. 15, 1707 describes the Winthrop wedding in 1707, which was the first time in his diaries that Sewall mentioned being given gloves to commemorate a marriage (Bullock, 311, footnote). A similar situation is described in fiction; in Richardson’s Pamela the eponymous protagonist mentions on more than a few occasions the tradition of glove giving to celebrate her marriage. The event of giving money to Mrs. Jervis, the housekeeper, and also to Mrs. Jewkes, to buy the aforementioned gloves is described by Pamela as thus,

I took Twenty Guineas, and said, Dear Mrs. Jervis, accept of this; which is no more than my generous Master order’d me to present to Mrs. Jewkes, for a pair of Gloves, on my happy Nuptials, and so you, who are so much better intitled to them, by the Love I bear you, must not refuse them. (464)

 

 

It is also interesting to see the relative prices of gloves as different ranks of servants receive different amounts of money to buy their commemorative gloves. The amount of money that both Mrs. Jervis and Mrs. Jewkes receive is hugely different to that of Mrs. Worden, a minor character within the novel, who only received ‘Five Guineas, for a Pair of Gloves’ (457). Due to their position in society, a housekeeper would be the highest female rank of the servant class, with her male equivalent being the butler so would expect to receive a better quality of glove than someone of lower rank.

 

 

 

Literature of the time also shows not only how gloves are used in celebration of a marriage, but also as bribes for sexual misconduct as found in The impetuous lover, or the Guiltless Parricide.

 How remiss soever that the aunt and neice were now grown, relative to this stranger; he himself, had been making the best use of his time in his absence: for having found out a near relation of Mr. B-t-t’s in the town, who kept an inn, he informed him of the affection he had for his kinswoman; and as her marriage with him, would be of so beneficial an affair to her, in there thei indignant circumstances, he instreated him to employ his good offices with her for becoming his bride. He further added, that if he could but prevail, for rendering his access easy to her, he should think himself obliged in honour, to make him an handsome present for a pair of gloves, for himself and wife. (Esquire, 145)

 

 

 

Gloves as concealment

 

 

Surprisingly with Richardson’s Clarissa, the eponymous protagonist is unvaryingly depicted without gloves, which is surprising as the full title of the text is Clarissa, or The History of a Young Lady. As discussed before, it is clear that no young woman of good breeding would think about entering the public sphere without gloves, while when Clarissa is dressed to go out she still has bare hands. However, Lovelace notes in Letter XLVII to John Belford: ‘I saw her enter dressed, all but her gloves, and those and her fan in her hand’ (151, Volume 4). This over-intensive notice of the fact that Clarissa is not wearing gloves shows just how important these pieces of clothing were. Lovelace seems to have an obsession with the hands of Clarissa throughout the text, and not just because they write the letters about him. In an earlier letter to John Belford, Lovelace proclaims

on her charming arms a pair of black velvet glove-like muffs of her own invention; for she makes and gives fashions as she pleases.—Her hands velvet of themselves, thus uncovered the freer to be grasped by those of her adorer. (54, Volume 3)

 

thus displaying the attraction that he has towards Clarissa. By displaying her hands, as other women in this text are described as doing, she is also placing herself in the realm of sexual availability. Once Clarissa tells of her intention to leave, the gloves that she has so far not worn are suddenly upon her hands; demonstrating her resolve in wanting to leave. 'Then, wiping her eyes, she put on her gloves—nobody has a right to stop me, said she!—I will go!' (79, Volume 5)

 

It is therefore quite ironic that Clarissa decides that her place of refuge will be ‘a hosier's and glove shop' (Richardson, 62, Volume 6). As Fizier suggests,

For Lovelace, the shop is the last stage upon which he plays out his predatory claim to [Clarissa]. Anticipating that the Smiths will “respect and fear” him, he enters their shop and insists that they allow him into Clarissa’s lodgings, a demand they politely decline as “the lady is not at home” (1210). With aggressive incredulity, he marauds through the upper floors in a vain search. Descending in a pique and declaring that “the shop shall be mine” (1214), he moves behind the counter and buys up the available goods, the proxies for his thwarted reclamation of Clarissa. Unappeased with purchasing power alone, he then inverts himself into the “pedlar,” corrals in customers, and proceeds to rip apart a glove by thrusting it onto a footman’s hand (1215). (2)

 

In opposition to Clarissa, Richardson’s first eponymous heroine, Pamela, is a lot more self-aware of her own body and what society expects of her. Whenever she leaves the house, it is clear that she is following the constraints, rules and expectations of Eighteenth century society.  In the episode with Lady Davers coming down the stairs, Pamela describes herself as being ‘dress’d as I was, and my Gloves on, and my Fan in my Hand, to be just ready to get into the Chariot, when I could get away’ (381). Once more, those in polite society notice these ever-present gloves, with Lady Davers demanding of Pamela ‘my young Lady, shall I help you off with your white Gloves?’ again showing the minute observations of Eighteenth century society (386). In the case of Pamela, these gloves are hiding the proof of her marriage to Mr. B, something that she wishes to conceal from Lady Davers if possible. This is a similar situation to those who found themselves faced with highwaymen which I will discuss later in this article. 

 

 

 

Gloves in the Law

 

 

 

Gloves within the public sphere

 

In the trial of Daniel Lackey, April 1757, the story of Fanny Hill and that of Christian Streeter parallel for a while. Literature and law combined within one law case. Lackey was ‘indicted for feloniously committing a rape upon the body of Christian Streeter’ yet the prosecution seemed more interested in whether Streeter was wearing gloves or not when she first met Lackey. The questioner actually asks her ‘Had you any gloves on?’ and her response is particularly surprising, saying

No, as we were going to the Hercules, he said I should look like a woman of the town to go without gloves; so he took me into a shop and bought me a pair. I offered to pay for them, but he would not let me.

 

Lackey’s own response is similar,

I was coming from Westminster, she turned back with me. I was ashamed to walk with her. She had no gloves on. She followed me 'till I came to the street that fronts the bridge. I went into a shop and gave her a pair of gloves; she thanked me. (own emphasis)

 

This immediate linking of gloveless women with prostitutes is very telling of Eighteenth century society. The fact that Streeter was not wearing gloves gives Lackey the excuse to make improper advances towards her without the fear of a rebuff. The fact that he is ashamed to be seen with her simply because she is gloveless once more shows the zeitgeist that all must follow for propriety’s sake. The purchase of the gloves, followed by the acceptance of Streeter seems to then permit him to have his way with her body, perhaps the reason that led the jury to pronounce the verdict of not guilty.

 

 

Another country maid, like Streeter, brings her body into similar danger for a similar price. Cleland’s eponymous heroine, Fanny Hill, is also taken into a glove shop and bought gloves by someone else. This someone else being the Madame who indoctrinates her into the world of prostitution. Fanny describes the scene where the Madame ‘bid the coachman drive to a shop in St. Paul's Churchyard, where she bought a pair of gloves, which she gave me’ (20). Even within literature, the idea of the need to keep up appearances is clear, insofar as gloves as an outward display of respectability for women and those who do not have them must be provided with them by any means possible.

 

 

 

On the other hand from a masculine viewpoint within Defoe’s Moll Flanders, it is Moll who takes the opportunity to steal off her lover she wishes to be rid of. Taking not only his watch, gold and periwig, but also his gloves, which would be the least expensive of all of these items, Moll is divesting him of his place within society. The social norms of this society are held up by the items that she steals, demonstrating the symbolic importance of gloves.

I took this opportunity to search him to a nicety. I took a gold watch, with a silk purse of gold, his fine full−bottom periwig and silver−fringed gloves, his sword and fine snuff−box, […] I got softly out, fastened the door again, and gave my gentleman and the coach the slip both together, and never heard more of them. (112)

 

 

 

Gloves as concealment, especially in cases of Highway Robbery

 

 

As mentioned before, gloves were employed both successfully and unsuccessfully against highwaymen. From reading the trials of many highwaymen, the goods that they prized were portable goods, rings, watches and necklaces. They were not, however, averse to using the gloves of those robbed to store their loot in. When Johanna Frankling and her daughter were robbed from the side of the road, during the trial of 5th April 1749 she told the court how she managed to conceal her rings within her glove while the highwayman searched her daughter and ‘stripped her glove off her hand to see’. This would have been deeply insulting for women on this age, showing the extreme circumstance when their naked hand would be shown in public. In the interim Frankling managed to ‘pull off [her] glove with [her] ring in it, to show him [her] hand’ telling him ‘you may see I have no ring.’ The highwayman for this particular robbery was found not guilty, although other highwaymen and those that they robbed were not so, as shown by the trials of 11th December 1765 and 18th July 1839. Both of the men who were robbed attempted to hide their rings within their gloves had their gloves ripped from their hands by the robbers. As William Reynolds describes,

When they had got my Watch and Money, one of them bid the others see if I had no Rings; I said I had no - Rings, for I had but - one; and at the same time I endeavoured to shuffle it off, with my Glove, but one of them guessing what I was about, cry'd - damn you, are you going to serve me so, and catching hold of my Glove, he tore it off, and took my Ring, - 'twas a Mourning Ring, set with a Chrystal Stone.

 

In both cases, both highwaymen were found guilty and sentenced to death. Perhaps because of the lack of evidence to prove their innocence, or perhaps just because they dared to rip the glove off a gentleman. The severity of their punishment compared to the value of the items they stole is overzealous, which may be also down to the value of rings and trinkets when compared to gloves. This shows that although gloves may not have been as expensive as other popular items in Eighteenth century society, their symbolic weight was just as heavy as anything else of the time, if not more so. In wearing gloves you were not only concealing, but also confirming, your status and place within said society.

 

 

 

Gloves as containers

 

 

As well as being something that conceals expensive items, such as rings and the like, from highwaymen, gloves were also used in the Eighteenth century for storing expensive items. This type of use is also found in the Old Bailey Records, where a glove containing expensive items has been stolen, as in the case of 17th April 1776 where the thief stole ‘180 guineas wrapped up in a woman's glove’ from the house of Robert Whitehead. The thief was found guilty and sentenced to death. In the case of deception and forgery, heard 19th February 1777, it is this time the criminal who uses the glove to conceal and contain another, more expensive item. In this case, the policeman searching the house of the criminals ‘found two pair of buckles in a glove’. In this case the gloves were used not only to hold the buckles, but also to hide them. The prisoners were found guilty and sentenced to imprisonment and hard labour.

 Another criminal found guilty, Drummond Clark, was found to be a pickpocket after a certain Mr. Carr noticed her irregular behaviour upon being in possession of a guinea. From the trial of 21^st April 1784 Mr. Carr said

I asked her how she came by the guinea, and she said nothing to that; she was a going to put something in her bosom, and it was a glove, and there were three guineas and some silver in it

 

There is the innate sexual connotations of the glove as a covering to the naked hand, and plus the fact that Mr. Carr noticed instantly that she had placed the glove ‘in her bosom’ shows the focused attention of Eighteenth century men upon the body of the woman. The fact that in the instant that Mr. Carr saw the glove he recognised it for what it was, even though he must only have seen said item for a few seconds at most. From this incident of pickpocketing Ms. Clark was sentenced to death.

 

 

 

Gloves as a valued commodity

 

 

Nevertheless, stealing gloves on their own did not have as harsh a punishment as other crimes. On 4^th December 1782, Moses Mathews was found guilty of ‘feloniously stealing on the 30th of October last ten pair of leather gloves, value 10 s’ but his conviction was only a private whipping rather than the harsher punishment of the death penalty. Even when a criminal admits to robbery; as with the case of John Sutton, tried on the 4^th December 1734, that does not necessarily mean that they were convicted. Even though they assaulted the woman in question, ‘putting her in Fear and taking from her a gold Ring set with a stone, a black silk Glove, a Bunch of Keys, and 20 d. in Money’ and then admitted their guilt afterwards they were still acquitted.

 

Nevertheless, gloves were still expensive during the Eighteenth century, as shown by their inclusion into various account books of the time as items of specific value rather than placed under a title of miscellaneous.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Extract from the account book of Bill Headings, Linen and Woolen Makers, and also an extract from The Accompt Book of Margaret Spence 

 

 

Bibliography

 

 

Eighteenth Century

 

• Anonymous. Bouquet: or Cluster of sweets. Being a collection of panegyrical, satyrical, amorous, moral, humorous, and monumental epigrams. With an essay on that species of     composition. Dublin: Printed for Henry Whitestone, No. 29, Capel-Street, MDCCLXXXIV. [1784]. Print.

 

• Anonymous. Etiquette for the Ladies. Eighty Maxims on Dress, Manners, and Accomplishments. 4th Edition. London: Printed for Charles Tilt, 86, Fleet Street. Bodleian Library [1837]. Print.

 

• Abbot, George. The case of impotency as debated in England, in that remarkable tryal an. 1613. between Robert, Earl of Essex, and the Lady Frances Howard, who, after eight years marriage, commenc'd a suit against him for impotency. Containing I. The whole Proceedings, and Debates on both Sides. II. The Report of the Seven Matrons appointed to search the Countess. III. The Intrigue between Her and the Earl of Somerset, who after the Divorce married Her. IV. A Detection of some Politicks in the Court of King James the First. Written by George Abbot, D. D. Lord Archbishop of Canterbury. In two volumes.London: printed for E. Curll, at the Dial and Bible against St. Dunstan's Church in Fleetstreet, [1715]. Print.

 

• Aulnoy, Madame d' (Marie-Catherine). Memoirs of the court of England. In two parts. By the Countess of Dunois, Author of the ingenious and diverting Letters of The Lady's Travels into Spain. Writ during Her Residence in that Court. Now made English. To which is added, The lady's pacquet of letters, Taken from her by a French Privateer in her Passage to Holland. Suppos'd to be Written by several Men of Quality. Brought over from St. Malo's by an English Officer at the last Exchange of Prisoners. London : printed, and sold by B. Bragg at the Raven in Pater-Noster-Row, 1707. Print.

 

• Cleland, John. Fanny Hill, or Memoirs of a Woman of Pleasure. London : Luxor Press [1963]. Print.

 

• Defoe, Daniel. Fortunes and misfortunes of the famous Moll Flanders. New York : Modern Library, 2002. Print.

 

• Esquire A. G., The impetuous lover, or the Guiltless Parricide, shewing, To what Lengths Love may run, and the extream Folly of forming Schemes for Futurity. Written under the Instructions, and at the Request of one of the Interested Partys. London: printed for E. Ross, at his circulating Library, in Duke's Court, facing St. Martin's Church, Charing-Cross, M.DCC.LVII. [1757]. Print.

 

• Richardson, Samuel. Pamela, or Virtue Rewarded. United States, New York: London, Dent: Oxford University Press [2001]. Print.

 

• ---, Samuel. Clarissa, or, The history of a young lady: comprehending the most important concerns of private life. In eight volumes. Dublin, 1792. Volumes 3, 4 and 5 of 8. Print.

 

Academic Analysis

 

• Benedict, Barbara M. Encounters with the Object: Advertisements, Time, and Literary Discourse in the Early Eighteenth-Century Thing-Poem. Eighteenth-Century Studies, Vol. 29, 1995-1996. Print.

 

• Bullock, Steven C. and McIntyre, Sheila. The Handsome Tokens of a Funeral: Glove-Giving and the Large Funeral in Eighteenth-Century New England. The William and Mary Quarterly , Vol. 69, No. 2 (April 2012) , pp. 305-346 .Omohundro Institute of Early American History and Culture. Print.

 

• Fizer, Irene. Rags of Immortality: Clarissa’s Clothing and the Exchange of Second-Hand Goods. Eighteenth Century Fiction Volume 20, Number 1, pp. 1-34 Fall 2007. Print.

 

• Wigston Smith, Chloe. Clothes without Bodies: Objects, Humans, and the Marketplace in Eighteenth-Century It-Narratives and Trade Cards. Eighteenth-Century Fiction, Volume 23, Number 2, Winter 2010-11. Print.

 

Old Bailey Cases

 

• Defendant: John Sutton, Reference Number: t17341204-54, Date: 4^th December 1734, Offence: Highway Robbery

 

• Defendant: George Broderick, Reference Number: t17390718-13, Date: 18^th July 1739, Offence: Highway Robbery

 

• Defendant: Edward More, Reference Number: t17490405-13, Date: 5^th April 1749, Offence: Highway Robbery

 

• Defendant: James Wilkins, Robert Scott, George Wooley, Reference Number: t17651211-6, Date: 11^th December 1765, Offence: Highway Robbery

 

• Defendant: Daniel Greenwood, Reference Number: t17760417-34, Date: 17^th April 1776, Offence: Theft from a Specified Place

 

• Defendant: Sarah Cooley, John Hurst, Reference Number: t17770219-63, Date: 19^th February 1777, Offence: Forgery

 

• Defendant: Moses Mathews, Reference Number: t17821204-9, Date: 4^th December 1782, Offence: Shoplifting

 

• Defendant: Drummond Clark, Reference Number: t17840421-24, Date: 21^st April 1784, Offence: Pocketpicking