As defined in the Oxford English Dictionary, the term library could be understood mainly by two meanings; a place to hold books and read, study, or volumes of one's collection of books and extended to one's knowledge.

The first definition of library as a place to hold books is divided into three categories;

In the case of eighteenth century Britain, it was a period when many libraries were established in association with the expansion of publication and growing demand for print. As the price of publication still remained high,  people borrowed books from various institutions or places, from a domestic library of a wealthy family or the emerging commercial libraries. People belonged to many reading institutions and used them according to their needs, as each of them differed in strong and weak points of their collections .

It is possible to see in the figure of the libraries various elements that  are central in considering eighteenth century British culture; gender, private and the public, urban and the rural.

Circulating Libraries

The circulating libraries grew increasingly during the years of 1740 to 1800. Circulating libraries first flourished in the resort places, the large cities, and later in the centurythey were seen in country towns and villages.

As the circulating libraries became associated with inappropriate and harmful reading, other reading institutions such as subscription libraries and book clubs were established. Also cathedral and parish libraries, the collections of Nonconformist congregations, taverns and coffee houses offered the access to read books, pamphlets, periodicals and newspapers (Brewer,John. 183). These many reading institutions was complemented by private collections of a gentleman or a aristocratic family, and personal lending and borrowing. 

Circulating libraries, especially those in London and larger cities, emerged from book sellers. But in times when bookselling alone was not a profitable business, in smaller cities books were often sold with other items as well. An example of this case can be seen in a writing by Dr. Benjamin Franklin.

While I lodged in Little-Britain, I formed acquaintance with a bookseller of the name of Wilcox, whose shop was next door to me. Circulating libraries were not then in use. He had an immense collection of books of all sorts. We agreed that, for a reasonable retribution, of which I have now forgotten the price, I should have free access to his library, and take what books I pleased, which I was to return when I had read them. I considered this agreement as a very great advantage ; and I derived from it as much benefit as was in my power. (75)

What this book seller is doing is obviously an early form of a circulating library, and shows the elision of borrowing and selling books. On the other hand, because book borrowing in circulating libraries was not private arrangement but a commercial business, different ways of management from that of booksellers were essential for them to prosper.

Hall's Library at Margate image 1

The circulating libraries managed their users and books by making a list of subscribers. The borrowers had to register their name and their address, and non-registered customers were required to leave a deposit to the books they were taking out (Hamlyn, 209). From lists of the subscribers, we could see that the number of women registering were still a minority, and the large number of users were men.

There were two types of subscription. One was charging for each borrowed books on a weekly or a nightly basis. This system was often applied by  libraries with small stock, which was likely to be run by book sellers and other shops as a kind of side business. The other was libraries that demanded subscription. These tended to have a larger stock, and  appeared in the late eighteenth century as a commercial libraries in fashionable resorts.(Cloclough,90) New subscription was available at anytime of the year, with a choice of various period. Subscription fees were apt to change. It declined when the number of subscribers reached a enough to maintain the library, on the other hand, in later years the charges were raised due to the increasing volumes of publication and the advanced price of newspapers (Newspaper ) (Brewer,John. 218). Later in some of them a system of classes of subscription was introduced. It seems that with a higher charged class more volumes were able to be borrowed at one time, or reservation of new books and pamphlets were available (Hamlyn,214).

Cataloges were provided in order to inform what they had in collection. Subscribers were offered them for free and non-subscribers were refunded their price after subscribing. The larger catalogues are arranged firstly according to format and secondly alphabetically by title or author, under wide subject-headings within each group.  Users of the library ordered their books according to the catalogues, and few libraries offered the users to glance freely at their volumes (Hamlyn,214).

Circulating libraries are often seen by satirists as the source of new and indiscriminating reading practices mainly of  novel.  In Hints on reading, while it recognizes how expansion of publication and reading cultivated and had good effects of female minds, and recommends regular and instructive reading such as belles lettres, it also implies to the bad reading habit such as reading without understanding and 'some begin at the last volume, they are so eager "to  see how it will end."' (136) The most famous satire on circulating libraries would be  the comment by Sir Absolute in The Rivals by Brinsley Sheridan: 'Madam, a circulating library in a town is as an ever-green tree of diabolical knowledge! It blossoms through the year! And depend on it, Mrs Malaprop, that they who are so fond of handling the leaves, will long for the fruit at last.' (12).

This was the same kind of situation of a young women obsessed in novel  reading can be seen in George Colman's Polly Honeycombe;

POLLY. Do now, my dear Nursee, pray do! and call at the Circulating Library, as you go along, for the rest of this Novel---The History of Sir George Truman and Emilia---and tell the bookseller to be sure to send me the British Amazon, and Tom Faddle, and the rest of the new Novels this winter, as soon as ever they come out.
NURSE. Ah, pise on your naughty novels! I say.
[Exit.
POLLY. Ay, go now, my dear Nursee, go, there's a good woman!---What an old fool it is! with her pise on it---and fie, Chicken---and no, by my troth---
[mimicking.]
---Lord! what a strange house I live in! not a soul in it, except myself, but what are all queer animals, quite droll creatures. There's Papa and Mama, and the old foolish Nurse.--- (8)

Also in Mr.Honeycombe's  words we can see how circulating libraries were associated with novel reading as he says, ' Zouns, I shall run mad with vexation---I shall--- Was ever man so heartily provoked?---You see now, Gentlemen, what a situation I am in!---Instead of happiness and jollity,---My friends and family about me,---A wedding and a dance,---And every thing as it should be,---Here am I, left by myself,---Deserted by my intended son-in-law---Bully'd by an attorney's clerk ---My Daughter mad---My Wife in the Vapours--- And all's in confusion.---This comes of Cordials and Novels.---Zouns, your Stomachicks are the Devil---And a man might as well turn his Daughter loose in Covent-garden, as trust the cultivation of her mind to A CIRCULATING LIBRARY. ' (44)

Polly's words 'Do you think, Nursee, I should have had such a good notion of love so early, if I had not read Novels?' (5)also implies the how the novels and romances had a huge effect on young woman about life and love.

She also says 'I have not read so many books for nothing. Novels, Nursee, Novels! A Novel is the only thing to teach a girl life, and the way of the world, and elegant fancies, and love to the end of the chapter.' (4).

Frontipiece to The Female Spectator (Image2)

Also as we can see in the Polly's words below, to gether with how novel reading can give young women transgressive and inappropriate ideas such as elopemenst (Elopement), there are many references to contemporary novels . 
'Yes, run away, to be sure. Why there's nothing in that, you know. Every girl elopes, when her parents are obstinate and ill-natur'd about marrying her. It was just so with Betsy Thompson, and Sally Wilkins, and Clarinda, and Leonora in the history of Dick Careless, and Julia in the Adventures of Tom Ramble, and fifty others---Did not they all elope? and so will I too. I have as much right to elope, as they had, for I have as much love and as much spirit as the best of them.' (6) 

This can also be seen in Sheridan's The Rivals, in the act.1 scene.2 Lydia is asking the maid what novels she has found and not been able to found in the circulating libraries in Bath.

Nettleton lists up the twenty novels mentioned in The rivals: The Reward of Constancy; The Fatal Connexion; The Mistakes of the Heart; The Delicate Distress; The Memoirs of Lady Woodford; The Gordian Knot; Peregrine Pickle ; The Tears of Sensibility ; Humphry Clinker; The Memoirs of a Lady of Quality written by herself; The Sentimental Journey; The Whole Duty of Man ; Roderick Random; The Innocent Adultery; Lord Aimworth; Ovid; The Man of Feeling ; Mrs. Chapone ; Fordyce's Sermons ; and Lord Chesterfield's Letters.  He locates the texts mentioned in the contemporary periodicals and newspapers, and argues that what they had these novels were not titles made up by Sheridan but those that were shared and broadly read among the society (493).  And this implies that users of circulating libraries borrowing novels were not only women but men as well, as Sheridan himself is men and the play with reference to many contemporary novels couldn't have been written in a way novel reading females would only understand.Criticism on circulating and novels were responces to the imeediate and large effects it had on the society.

Isaac Cruikshank, 1756–1810, British, The Lending Library (image3)

The list of subscribers of the circulating libraries shows that women were not really the majority users. Actually at most of the circulating libraries it seems that most of the subscribers were men. 

Defoe mentions Leake's circulating library in Bath, and from his descriptions we can see that this circulating library had intellectuals as users, and it served a more meaningful way to spend time than in other leisure places.

The reft of the Diversion is at The rooms, as they are called: and perhaps Mr. Leake, who keeps one of the finest Booksellers Shops in Europe, has more than a Chance for half an Hour of each Person's Company now and then, and to be lure a Subscription, which is but five Shillings the Season, for taking home what Book you please; but Persons of Quality generally subscribe Gold, and I think it is the very best Money laid out in the Place, for those who go for Pleasure or Amusement only. (299)

The pamphlet 'The use of circulating libraries considered' which aims to come over the prejudiced notion of circulating libraries through establishing an ideal figure of circulating libraries, refers to the positive aspect of the circulating libraries had on women.

'... many of the belt works of fancy, published of late years, are the production of female pens, which it is possible might never have appeared, nor their labours been rewarded, but for Circulating Libraries.' (9)

In a time when ways for women to earn profit was limited, writing became a powerful choice. Especially for middle class women who were likely to be married was confined to domestic household and derived of means to earn money the even more when they had children(Todd, 219-220).

In eighteenth century when art and literature supported by patrons were only available to those who had connection to genteel class, circulating libraries complemented the role and bought their manuscripts and rights to publish from women writers. Also in Mary Robinson's The Natural Daughter circulating libraries are depicted as 'female-friendly spaces' where women are able to offer and find help from other women, as patriarchal homes did not and worked as oppressive to women (Pearson, 167).

There are some possible reasons for circulating libraries thought of as female spaces.

One can be considered in how novels were read. Instructive or high-culture books were available and borrowed out from circulating libraries as well, but novels were particularly borrowed out from circulating libraries because they were not the books that were for reading several times.  This is made clear in Cruikshank's paintings (image4). Novels were something that would be only read once, and were things of consumption rather than possession. It can be said that the expensiveness of novels as well as the reluctance to purchase novels enhanced the rise of the circulating libraries (Skelton-Foord, 348-349).

Another reason of circulating libraries seen as female dominated spaces would be that it offered female employment when job opportunities for women were elsewhere in decline (Pearson, 164)

It is also said that William Lane a London bookseller who worked in establishing circulating libraries has a cause for it. William Lane was a son of a poulterer, and began his bookselling as a side business. In 1784 together with establishing a press which was later named Minerva Press, he set up his library and later worked in expanding circulating libraries to country districts. He used advertisements in newspapers to diffuse his publications effectively. Minerva Press specialized in gothic sentimental novels, provided the libraries with books that were hurriedly written to a formula by obscure women writers. The increased publication of novels and appeal to women lead to the criticism of female women reading. 

Domestic Libraries 

After the mid eighteenth century,a private library became a necessary feature in a home of a noble families. Older houses which was designed without a library turned long galleries into private libraries by placing shelves  full of books(Brewer, John, 184).  It became a common thing to have a library in a gentleman's house and what sort of books and furniture to have became a matter of importance(Raven, 187-191). A pamphlet 'Directions for a proper choice of authors to form a library which may both improve and entertain the mind, and be of real use in the conduct of life. Intended for those readers who are only acquainted with the English language. with  the list of proper books on the several subjects' gives a list of authors ordered in each genre which is appropriate to have in one's library.  As it says in 'the use of the circulating libraries considered,"  'Proper books are proper compa- nions, and often keep us from improper ones; with them we either travel or flay at home; with them we are sentimental or merry; and from them we seldom part without improvement and pleasure.'  (11,12), book became a sign of gentility and culture.

Domestic libraries became a place of socialization; books went in and out from the library, but the moved not only within the house but often went out with guests of the family. In rural villages, some of the domestic houses lend out books to their neighbours.

But together with the recognition as a sign of cultivation, books became a sign of authority especially against female. It shows a clear contrast to circulating libraries viewed as a place of femininity. Pearson argues how the representations of private libraries show that they were seen as a place of masculinity and patriarchal power. In the eighteenth century women rarely had a library of ones own, which would enable to have a space of one' own that is free from domestic rolls and norms (153). Private libraries figured patriarchal power over women and young men, and were especially described by women writers with an anxiety to male domination of culture. Among the examples Pearson gives, the use of library in Inchbald's A Simple Story signifies how private library as a place were power relationship in domestic sphere became explicit. Miss Milner's resistance against conventional norms and patriarchal power seems to attain triumph in Volume 2, Chapter 10, when she becomes convinced that Lord Elmwood loves her at seeing how hurt he looked at Lord Frederick's appearance (171). The fact that it is his library that Lord Elmwood retires as if to recover his pride and authority implies how a man's private library was a place of masculinity and power, because in this scene it serves to heal and confirm his pride and authority. It is also why the recovery  of the unfortunate relationship between Lord Elmwood and his daughter Matilada takes place at the library. The hurt patriarchal power and authority must be regained at the place where it was damaged. The first sign of Lord Elmwood's care for Matilda comes to be presented as a concern for the reading of his daughter.

But what gave her pleasure beyond any other attention was,that after she had taken (by the aid of Rushbrook) about a dozen volumes from different shelves, and had laid them together, saying she would send her servant to fetch them, Lord Elmwood went eagerly to the place where they were, and taking up each book, examined attentively what it was.--- One author he complained was too light, another too depressing, and put them on the shelves again; another was erroneous and he changed it for a better; and thus he warned her against some,and selected other authors; as the most cautious preceptor culls for his pupil, or a fond father for his darling child.---She thanked him for his attention to her, but her heart thanked him for his attention to his daughter.---For as she herself had never received such a proof of his care since all their long acquaintance, she reasonably supposed Matilda's reading, and not hers, was the object of his solicitude. (272)

On the other hand, Inchbald's representation of private library does not stop at figuring it with patriarchal authority, and it dramatizes and negotiates 'a historical shift from the private library as the preserve of the male to the private library as a shared domestic space where power and pleasure can be more evenly distributed.' (Pearson 159). It is at the library that the marriage of Matilda and Rushbrook's marriage are admitted by Lord Elmwood, a scene where family order is restored with the happiness of the young couple.

Primary Sources.

-Colman, George. Polly Honeycombe. London, 1760. Literature Online. Web. 12 Feb. 2015.

Colman's play satirizes circulating libraries and female novel reading. 

Secondary Sources.

-Brewer, David A. "Print, Performance, Personhood, Polly Honeycombe." Studies In Eighteenth-Century Culture 41.(2012): 185-194. MLA International Bibliography. Web. 10 Mar. 2015.

Investigates how print and novels are represented in Polly Honeycombe.

-Brewer, John. "Readers and the reading Public" The Pleasures of Imagination: English Culture in the Eighteenth Century. pp.167-197. London: Harper Collins, 1997. Print. 

How the reading experience and reading environment changed with the expansion of publication in the eighteenth century.  

-Colclough, Stephen.  Consuming texts: Readers and reading communities, 1695-1850.  Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2007.  Web. 4 Jan. 2015.

How various reading institutions structured the reading experience in the eighteenth century Britain centering on the use of circulating libraries.